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PRFSENTED m^ 



THE EXPERT 
WOOD FINISHER 

A Text Book for the Guidance of the Expert 

Workman and Manual of Instruction 

for the Learner 

THIRD EDITION 



Entirely Re-Written and Brought Down to Date, with 

Much New Matter and the Elimination of Old, Making 

THE Work a Thoroughly Reliable Source of Practical 

Information for the Wood Finishing Trades. 



BY 

A. ASHMUN KELLY 

Author and Publisher of the EXPERT SERIES of Books 

for House and Sign Painters, Paper Hangers, Interior 

Decorators, Calciminers, and Wood Finishers. 




A. ASHMUN KELLY 
1921 






Copyrighted, 1921 
By a. Ashmun Kelly 
«1FT 



UN -9*24 I 






TABLE OF CONTENTS 



PAGE 

Description of the Woods Used 1 

Oak, Mahogany, Walnut, Maple, Red Gum, Birch, 
Beech, Redwood, Cypress, Hard Pine, Sycamore, Ash, 
Rosewood, Cherry, Chestnut. 

Wood Filling 16 

Close-Grained and Open-Grained Woods Listed and 
Described — Filling Open-Grain Woods — List of Paste 
Fillers — Table of Colors Used in Paste Fillers — Fillers 
for the Various Woods — Some Paste Filler Notes — 
Liquid Filler Notes — Some Liquid Filler Formulas — 
Filling and Finishing the Various Woods — Etc. 

Finishing Western Woods 62 

Finishing Hardwood Floors 67 

General Description — Wax Finish — Varnish Finish — 
Finish for Hard Pine Floor — Finishing Hardwood 
Floors — -Wax Floor Polish Formula — ^Polishing Hard- 
wood Floors — Waxing Old Floors — Floor Wax Form- 
ulas — Floor Waxing Notes — Crack Fillers and Floor 
Putties — Cracks in New Floors — Large Floor Cracks — 
Putties and Cements for Hardwoods — Renovating Old 
Floors — A Few Minor Floor Notes — Douglass Fir 
Floor Finishing. 

Finishing Veneered Work 82 

Preparing Mahogany Veneered Surface — Dyeing 
Veneers Black — Mahogany Veneer and Birch — Birch 
and Walnut Veneer — Finishing Walnut Veneer — Lines 
of Butt Joints do not Match — Staining Veneered Work 
— Pohshing Veneered Work — Protecting Inlay or 
Marquetry — Penetrating Ebony Stain — Veneer Finish- 
ing Notes. 

Wood Stains and Wood Staining 90 

General Description of Processes — Staining Oak — To 

iii 



iv CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Match Brown Oak — Weathered Oak — Bog Oak — Mis- 
sion Oak — Flemish Oak — Light and Dark— Golden Oak 
—Antwerp Oak — ^Gray Oak — Dark Oak Stains — An- 
tique Oak — ^Silver-Gray Effects—Trouble in Oak 
Finishing™ Oak Stain Formulas — Stains Various — Etc. 

Staining Wickerware and Willow Furniture 112 

The Equivalents of Water Colors in Aniline 
Dyes 117 

Description of Stains and Their Uses . . . 118 

The Art of Wood Polishing ...... 128 

French Polishing — Oil Polishing — Pblish-on-Varnish 
Finish — Polish Formulast — Polishing in the Lathe — 
Various Polish Formulas. 

Finishing New Furniture 145 

The Gloss Finish — The Rubbed Finish — The Polished 
Finish — Finishing Cheap New Furniture — Furniture 
Varnishes — Making Antique Furniture. 

Refinishing Old Furniture 152 

Description of Finishing — Enameled Furniture — Re- 
polishing — Coloring Up — Furniture Polishes — Doing- 
Up Old Furniture — Furniture Cream or French Re- 
polisher — Furniture Revivers — Furniture Renovating 
Polish — Derby Cream — Wax Stained for Colored 
Woods — Polish for Good Furniture — Renovating Piano 
Polish — Cheap Wax Polish — Polish for Statuary, Etc. 
— Perfuming Polishes and Renovators — Various Furni- 
ture Polishes — Removing Stains, White Spots, Etc. — 
— Removing Old Varnish — Varnish Remover Formulas 
— Notes on Varnish Removers. 

Practical Notes on Varnishing ..... 179 

How Varnish Dries — Temperature of Varnishing Room 
— ^Why Varnish Cracks — Cloudy Shellac Varnish — 
How to Varnish — Varnish Turns Green — Heavy 
Bodied Varnish — Varnish Does Not Flow Freely — 
Difference between Exterior and Interior Varnish — 
Composition of Spar Varnish — Composition of Interior 
Varnish — Composition of Floor Varnish — How Varnish 
is Made — China Wood Oil. 



CONTENTS V 

PAGE 

Description of Varnishes Used 186 

Making Oil Varnishes— Short and Long Oil Varnish- 
Some Varnish Notes— Aged vs. New Varnish— Effects 
of Temperature — Qiaracteristics of Good Varnish — 
Heat-Resisting Varnishes — How Many Coats of Var- 
nish ?— Flatting Varnish— Practical Varnish Notes. 

Varnish Ills — Cause and Cure 198 

Blistering — Blooming — Brush Marks— Blotching— Bub- 
bling— Brittleness— Chilling— Crimping — Creeping or 
Crawling — Chipping — Checking — Silking — Sinking In — 
Sweating— Seedy Varnish— Sandy Appearance — Sag- 
ging — Sissing or Cissing — Tears — Turning White — 
Wrinkling— Pitting or Pinholing--Flatting — Loss of 
Brilliancy — Skinning Over of Varnish. 

Shellac Varnish 203 

Origin and Gathering of Lac — The Various Grades — 
Pure Shellac— Adulteration of Shellac— Bleached White 
Shellac — Orange Shellac — Preparing Shellac Varnish — 
Artificial Shellac — Water Shellac — Clear Alcoholic So- 
lution of Shellac — 'White Gum Shellac Specifications- 
Special Quick Drying Shellac — Applying Shellac in 
Damp Weather— Chinese Glue — Shellac Varnish Notes. 

How TO Use the Air-Spray Machine . . . 224 

Information — General and Special . . . ,231 

Sap and Seasoning — Staining the Ends of Boards — 
Shop Economies — Staining Wood before Working Up — 
Imitating Old Mahogany — Mahoganizing Other Woods 
— Finishing Fireproofed Wood — Staining and Finishing 
House Trim — Violin Varn,ishing — Piano Finishing — 
Finishing Antique Oak Piano Case — Another Piano 
Finishing Process — Finishing a Rosewood Case — Me- 
chanical Varnishing — .How to Prevent Cracking of 
Varnish — Trouble with Shellac Finish — Imitation of 
Woods by Printing — -Wood Finishes in Favor — Colum- 
bian Mahogany — Filling Checks in Veneers — Why the 
Varnish Sweats — Making and Using the Tacky Rag — 
Ebonizing Piano Keys — Polish for Ebony — Removing 
Dust before Varnishing — Staining Brown Mahogany — 
Perfume for Renovators, Etc. — Hardening Varnish for 
Table Tops — Solubility of Varnish Gums — Covering 
Capacity of Varnish — Finishing Laboratory Table Top 
— French Artificial Wax — Chamois or Goat Skin — 



vi CONTENTS 

TAGE 

Concerning Sponges — Testing Turpentine — China Wood 
Oil — Finishers' Supplies Described — The Waxes — Test- 
ing Varnish— ^Preventing Filler from Cracking — Bak- 
ing Varnish on Wood — Crackle Finish — Finishing Ma- 
hoganized Birch — Finishing Birch Veneers — Oxalic 
Acid Preparation — Non-Cracking Linseed Oil — Figure- 
less Quartered Oak — High Polish on Red Cedar — 
Finishing Birdseye Maple — Wax Finishing Small 
Articles — Finishing Ouija Boards — Oiled Sandpaper — 
Rubbed vs. Varnished Surfaces — Birdseye Maple — 
Polished End Wood — Ail-Around Varnish — Making 
Brown Mahogany — Humidity in Finishing Room — 
Toning Down Circassian — Sta,ining Mahogany — Finish- 
ing Inside of Case Goods — The Curly Woods — How 
Sandpaper Is Made — How to Use Sandpaper. 

Varnish Stains 277 

How Prepared — Stained Filler — Walnut Varnish Stain 
— Oak Varnish Stain — Cherry Varnish Stain — Ebony 
Varnish Stain — Satinwood Varnish Stain— Note. 



THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 



DESCRIPTION OF THE WOODS USED 

The process of wood finishing is one of the simplest 
of the mechanical arts, and yet it demands of the 
workman a degree of skill not exceeded in any other 
line of handicrafts. The first requirement is a knowl- 
edge of woods, their physical structure, so that the 
treatment necessary to their perfect development of 
line and color may be understood. Then comes ma- 
terial and manipulation thereof, the staining and fill- 
ing of the woods, and the final work of varnishing, 
rubbing, polishing, etc. Nor is this all, for the finisher 
must understand the composition and nature of the 
various stains and pigments he handles, the aniline 
dyes, the liquids, the mineral and vegetable pigments. 
While all these matters are fully and carefully de- 
scribed in this work, yet it will require experience in 
order to develop the complete workman. Study the 
instructions given here, and follow them carefully, and 
in due course you will succeed in mastering the art and 
becoming a skilled wood-finisher, — if you put heart into 
your work, for unless one loves his work he never can 
succeed in becoming its master. 

I shall first take up the subject of woods. We try 
to place the woods under two heads, hard and soft, but 
these are not the most appropriate terms to use, and 
they are confusing to most of us. There are, bo- 
tanically, two broad groups of tree species, the decidu- 
ous or broad-leaved tree, and the evergreen, needle- 
leaved or coniferous trees. The wood of the most of 

1 



2 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

the former is comparatively hard, and that of the latter 
mostly soft. The names, hard wood and soft wood, 
have, therefore, been applied to the two groups, respec- 
tively. But they are not the best descriptive terms, be- 
cause such wc^ods as basswood, yellow poplar, and Cot- 
tonwood, known under the above classification as hard 
woods, are quite soft ; while such woods as the South- 
em yellow pines, which are in our soft wood class, are 
rather hard. Under the head of Wood Filling I have 
listed two groups of woods under the heads of close- 
grained and open-grained, which for our purpose is a 
better classification than that of hard and soft woods. 
For it is with the matter of grain that we are the most 
concerned, as it makes very little difference whether a 
wood is hard or soft, when we have the other list to 
guide us. Under those heads we find listed sixteen 
close-grained woods, and eleven open-grained woods. 
Showing twenty-seven different kinds of wood used 
hi cabinet and house construction work that are treated 
by the wood finisher. 

The finishing of these woods is fully described under 
appropriate heads, and requires no further description 
here. Each wood is taken up and its treatment pains- 
takingly described. And as the reader proceeds he 
finds all necessary information touching the nature 
and uses of the different materials that enter into the 
work on finishing. 

We will now take up the various woods and describe 
their characteristics, with some account of their Hfe 
history. First in importance come the oaks. 

Oak. — The forester places all the oaks, of which 
there are many different kinds, in two classes, naming 
them white and black. The woods of the two groups 
are structurally different. Of the some seventeen listed 
in a bulletin issued by the Government only a few 
interest the wood- worker and finisher. These are the 



DESCRIPTION OF THE WOODS USED 3 

white and the red oaks. True, there are some few 
others that enter into furniture making and into house 
trim, but for fuming and staining, only the white and 
red oaks are desirable. Red oak has several other 
names, such as mountain oak, black oak, and Spanish 
oak, it being a member of the black oak group. It is 
more abundant than white oak, and grows faster, but 
is considered inferior to the white oak. 

Of the white oak group those most used, outside 
of true white oak, are burr oak, chestnut oak, post 
oak, etc. Of the black oak group the most used are 
Texas red oak, red oak, and spotted or water oak. 
The best quality of white oak is largely cut into quarter- 
sawed boards, while a combination of one or more 
white oaks and red oak may constitute cuts of "white 
oak." In many markets the term "cabinet white oak'* 
is understood to include a mixture of red and white 
oaks, but not infrequently it means simply red oak. 
Ho.wever, for all the purposes for which white oak is 
commonly used, practically all the trees of this group 
will yield woods that can be interchanged and will serve 
equally well. 

It is probable that all the various oaks give what is 
called the "splash line" figure upon being quartered, 
and no other wood does this. While at this writing 
the beautiful splash or flake effects seen in quartered 
oak are taboo, having been overdone the past few 
years (the practice of quartering oak having origi- 
nated about 1 87 1 or 1872), still when properly finished 
there is nothing finer in the wood finishing line. At 
first only white oak was used for quartering, but be- 
fore long it was discovered that other members of the 
white oak group possessed fine flake effects, though 
some excelled others in this respect. Then it was a lit- 
tle later on found that some members of the red group 
gave fine figure effects. 



4 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

The largest member of the white oak family is the 
burr or overcup oak. Some in the Missouri River bot- 
toms have measured as much as from five to seven feet 
in diameter. In some cases the wood is found to be too 
coarse to finish well, and also that the color contrast 
between the splash line and the wood itself is insuffi- 
cient. Yet there are those who claim for the wood that 
no other member of the oak family presents so beau- 
tiful a figure. 

As for the red oaks, some of them give a figure 
so closely resembling white oak that it is not easy to 
distinguish the difference, if any exists. In some 
cases both the figure and wood resemble white oak 
very closely. At other times red oak wood takes on 
a pinkish hue that adds materially to its beauty. 

Mahogany. — Less than one-half of the mahogany 
used in the United States is the true mahogany 
(Swietenia mahogani) . This tree is confined naturally 
to the western hemisphere, where its range of growth 
is comparatively restricted. All other woods known in 
the trade are spurious. It is true that there are other 
important groups of mahogany-like woods within the 
mahogany family (Meliacecu), but they are not en- 
titled to the name mahogany. As justly call dog- 
wood tupelo gum because the two are botanically re- 
lated. 

Besides the genus Swietenia there are a number of 
other genera of trees in the mahogany family which are 
used as mahogany. These are confined chiefly to 
West Africa, and the woods after reaching the market 
are known as African mahogany. There are also a 
number of different species sold as mahogany that do 
not belong to the mahogany family at all. There arc 
perhaps twenty-five trees on the west coast of Africa 
that sell under the trade name of "mahogany." 

The principal species from the African coast belong- 



DESCRIPTION OF THE WOODS USED 5 

ing to the mahogany family is Gambia mahogany; 
this formerly furnished most of the African mahogany. 
A magnificent tree, the wood closely resembles true 
mahogany in color and figure, but is of a deeper red- 
dish-brown color. The pith rays are farther apart 
than in true mahogany and are not arranged in tiers, 
which can be seen to best advantage on what the mill- 
man calls a bastard cut surface. This wood is hard 
and heavy, and is more difficult to work than true 
mahogany. 

Another tree, closely related to the Gambia ma- 
hogany, found from Liberia to the Gold Coast, fur- 
nishes a great deal of so-called African mahogany. 
There occur in this region two other trees that furnish 
an African mahogany under the name of "Tiami." 
Briefly, the woods similar to mahogany are very numer- 
ous in Africa, one region comprising 52,000 square 
miles of dense forests of such woods. 

There are two kinds of fancy mahogany, streaked 
and figured. The one has irregular wavy lines in the 
longitudinal section, and the other is irregularly fig- 
ured or mottled, which adds richness to the wood. The 
figured and streaked mahoganies are very rare, and 
only from one to three are found in a hundred trees 
felled. It is said that when the African mahogany 
is quarter-sawed it always shows the ribbon or streaked 
figure, with occasional mottlings. 

The rich color and handsome figure of true African 
mahogany, and its uniformity of texture and color, 
easily places it at the head of the mahogany varieties. 
Yet it also has its weak points. It is comparatively 
soft and porous, and is lacking in the strength that 
other mahoganies have. Its open grain tends to de- 
velop the fuzz that is such a bother to finishers. And 
it occasionally develops cross-breaks, due to wind 
stresses, probably, which is against it where strength 



6 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

counts. But for veneers it hardly is equaled. As for it 
being the only true mahogany, remember that this is 
spoken from the botanist's standpoint. There is some 
difference between the botanical special of Mahogani 
Sweitenia, Cedrela and Khaya, as well as some differ- 
ence of microscopic nature in their cellular structure, 
but the difference does not materially affect the woods 
in regard to the uses they are put to. Yet experts can 
distinguish the characteristics of all the woods of this 
family, from Africa, South America, the West Indies 
and Mexico. The West Indian wood is the hardest, 
the heaviest, and the darkest in color. It has a good 
figure, but is small in size. Cuban wood is small in 
size, and poor in color, being quite light. Its compact 
grain and great strength make it an excellent wood for 
chairs and frames, for w^hich it is commonly used. 
In former times it was called Spanish mahogany. 
Mexican mahogany is unexcelled for firmness of grain 
and evenness of texture. Not as hard and dense as the 
West Indian, it is harder and more compact than the 
African. 

Mahogany is an interlocking-grain wood; its fibers 
cross each other at an angle, or interlace. The degree 
of the angle at which they cross determines the develop- 
ment of the figure. When the direction of growth is 
nearly parallel to the tree's axis the wood presents a 
plain appearance, but when the growth is at a decided 
angle there is a strong development. African mahog- 
any is of this interlocking growth kind, and very 
strongly so; hence its most common type of figure is 
a stripe, which occurs in various degrees of strength. 
But in addition it has mottle, fiddle-back and curl, in 
combinations, presenting a great variety of figures. 
Being a tree of great size it is particularly adapted 
for making veneers, and it is said that 90 per cent, 
of the mahogany veneer produced is cut from African 



DESCRIPTION OF THE WOODS USED 7 

logs. It is somewhat softer than the American wood, 
and when fresh cut its color is pink. 

Mexican mahogany is the best adapted for interior 
finish, because of its hardness, which enables it to 
stand hard usage better than the softer woods. And 
as just now furniture makers are favoring a brown fin- 
ish for mahogany, and as the Mexican wood is light of 
color, it is easier to get a good brown effect than on 
the darker woods. It is also claimed that Mexican 
mahogany holds its color and figure better than any 
other variety of mahogany, and grows darker with age. 

Concluding, it may be well to summarize the facts 
about the mahogany family as follows : 

Mahogany is divided into three general groups, viz. : 
African. — It has the best figure, comes in large logs, 
has the darkest color; but it is soft, porous, and not 
especially strong. Mexican, Honduran and Nicara- 
guan. — Wide variety of markings, ranging from little 
or no figure to extreme markings; is hard and very 
strong; is lighter in color than African wood. West 
Indian. — Very hard, and excepting in cases of occa- 
sional San Domingo logs, does not develop figure; is 
light in color. 

Mention should be made of Philippine mahogany, 
extensively used after the World War shut off foreign 
mahogany. There are several varieties, such as Almon, 
Tanguile, and red and white Lauan. White Lauan and 
Almon are the light-colored woods, while red Lauan 
and Tanguile are dark. They are all of the same gen- 
eral family, and when finished present the same gen- 
eral appearance, it being possible to stain the light 
woods to give the appearance of the dark mahogany 
color. Or they can be finished natural, to imitate pri- 
mavera or white mahogany. The quarter-sawn wood 
shows a fine ribbon grain, and for this reason is pre- 
ferred to woods which have been used as substitutes 



8 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

for mahogany, but which show none of the mahogany 
characteristics of figure. 

PhiHppine mahogany is used for interior finish, 
cabinet work, furniture, etc., the same as African ma- 
hogany. While not hard, yet it is sufficiently hard to 
take and hold a high polish, and when properly finished 
only an expert can tell it from the more familiar ma- 
hoganies from Africa. 

Baywood is the name once given to the mahogany 
of the Bay Islands, Honduras. Even now one hears 
the name baywood given to true mahogany, and the 
term is confusing. Formerly the mahogany from 
Central America was known as baywood, while that 
from the West Indies was called Spanish mahogany. 
Fifty different woods are now sold tmder the name of 
mahogany. Spanish cedar is much used in place of, 
or masquerading as, mahogany. True baywood, the 
name given to a wood resembling mahogany, as well as 
to a wood resembling true mahogany, and now scarce, 
was a very poor substitute for mahogany, because it 
was soft and fight, and had none of the fine markings 
of true mahogany, its grain being straight. Yet it 
had some of the color of mahogany and took stain well. 

Circassian mahogany; a misnomer, for there is no 
such wood ; instead, we have Circassian walnut, which 
see under head of Walnut. 

Walnut. — The walnut is a tree of the genus Jug- 
lans, the members of this family of most importance 
to cabinet makers being the black walnut, the Persian 
or mis-called English walnut, and the white walnut, or 
butternut. Of the three the most popular is the 
American black walnut. The Persian walnut is ex- 
cellent for furniture, etc., but the black walnut is much 
more favored. The butternut or white walnut also pre- 
sents a fine wood for cabinet work. One of the best 
testimonials that black walnut has is the fact that no 



DESCRIPTION OF THE WOODS USED 9 

Other wood equals it for use in making gun stocks, for 
which purpose it is ideal. The wood is easily worked, 
and takes a very fine finish, 

French walnut is distinguished by its fine burls, 
and is used in making veneers. 

Circassian Walnut. — Because of a similarity in 
names Circassian walnut is often confused with Cau- 
casian, but there seems to be quite a difference, the 
Caucasian lacking the figure of the Circassian wood, 
and being also a harder wood. Even in butternut there 
are sometimes found logs that are remarkably similar 
in appearance to Circassian. It seldom runs as near 
to black in its figuring, but when really well figured 
butternut is found we have about the nearest thing, 
outside of the real wood, to Circassian walnut. 

Circassian, like other valuable cabinet woods, has 
its substitutes. Besides our red gum, there are other 
woods, from Africa, South America, and. Asia. Many 
of these woods are walnuts, and among them and the 
related woods are Caucasian walnut, Japanese walnut, 
butternut, Jamaica or West Indian walnut, and nogal, 
a member of the Jiiglans family. Our red gum is used 
along with and as a substitute for Circassian walnut. 

Maple. — The maple is of the genus Acer, all its 
species being confined to the north temperate zone, 
these species being eighty in number. The maple 
woods of interest to the woodworker and finisher are 
the hard or rock maple, or sugar maple, the white or 
silver maple, and the birdseye or curly maple. There 
is also an Oregon maple of great beauty when finished, 
it being light of color, with a surface covered with 
small waving lines, these showing handsomely at times, 
particularly in the glow of artificial light. Common 
hard maple has little beauty as regards figure, but its 
color and fine grain lend themselves to a very handsome 
finish. The grain of curly or birdseye maple varies as 



10 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

the saw divides its eyes transversely or longitudinally, 
and pieces cut out in circular sweeps, such as chair 
backs, sometimes exhibit both the birdseye and the 
mottle at different parts. The occurrence of eyes, 
zones, spots, and small curls in the wood form figures 
of great beauty. The wood shows, in the finished 
work, the peculiar appearance of small dots or ridges, 
or of little conical projections, with a small hollow in 
the center, but without any resemblance of knots, the 
apparent cause of ornament in other woods of similar 
character, as the burrs of the yew and Russian maple, 
or birch. Once it was thought that these so-called 
eyes resulted from birds pecking at the bark, but 
Holtzappfel investigated the matter carefully and 
found that they were caused by little spines or points 
in the bark, the layers of wood being molded upon 
these points, and each of their fibers is abruptly curved 
at the respective places, and when cut through they give, 
in tangential slices, the appearance of projections, the 
same as some rose-engine patterns. 

The white or silver maple also gives a very fine 
finish at the hands of the expert wood finisher. It is 
specially useful for stiles and rails for doors, sur- 
rounding birdseye panels. 

When properly seasoned maple holds its shape well, 
and is a strong, hard and stiff wood. 

Red Gum. — A very common tree in the South, 
growing to magnificent proportions in the best soils. 
Its heart shows a wide range of both color and figure. 
It is slightly darker than new-cut mahogany, and some 
of its parts are more elaborately figured than that 
wood. The color in general resembles that of mahog- 
any. It is liable to warp and twist, but careful sea- 
soning tends to reduce this to the minimum. Natural 
finish brings out its color and figure. The color is 
something like cherry, or rather more that than like 



DESCRIPTION OF THE WOODS USED U 

mahogany; its red color takes on a purple cast, very 
rich and soft. The grain of the wood is close, and it 
takes a very fine polish. Sometimes called satin wood. 

Birch. — There are the sweet or black birch, the 
yellow or gray birch, the red birch, and the white or 
paper birch. The wood is close-grained and fine, and 
comes both straight and curly. Generally the wood 
runs straight, and while it is a heavy, hard wood, it is 
never tough or cross-grained. It is easily cleaned up 
and made ready for finishing. Usually it is stained, 
but mahogany color does not look well on it. White 
birch is generally finished natural; a dull finish is 
best for any birch. 

The sap wood of yellow birch is yellowish, the heart 
w^ood light to dark reddish-brown. It is the heart wood 
of birch that furnishes the beautiful red birch, which 
rivals mahogany in beauty. Both sapwood and heart 
wood take a brilliant satiny polish. The figure of 
curly birch is especially handsome, while the sparkling 
luster of the finished wood gives a richness of tone such 
as is looked for only in the costliest imported woods. 

Fine as this wood is, it is not without its weak points. 
It is difficult to finish natural, as it lacks uniformity of 
color and marking, and if stained it is apt to fade. On 
the other hand, it has strength and density far superior 
to gum and will hold its color better ; stained with any- 
thing but aniline it will hold color as well as any wood. 
The woodworker says that the wood has an oil that is 
bad for the glue in the gluing of the joints. Except- 
ing in the best grades of furniture he does not try to 
match the wood's figure very closely, so that in a glued- 
up job he can put the sap edges together and the heart 
edges together, which will ensure a good joint. Then 
the finisher can stain the light parts to match the dark, 
and follow with a light coat of stain to make all har- 
monize. And he may stain the filler, too. 



12 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

Beech. — The red beech wood is very handsome, 
and when properly stained makes a very good imitation- 
cherry wood. It has a fine grain and is a very durable 
wood, and when quarter-sawed its beauty is further 
enhanced. 

Redwood. — Found growing only in California, and 
there only in restricted sections, the homes of the 
famous "Big trees." There are two species, Sequoia 
Gigantica, or big tree, and Semper Virens, or ever- 
living tree. It is only from the latter that we get red- 
wood for cabinet or house building wood. It is a very 
durable wood, with a hard heart and a soft body out- 
side of that. It has a gummy sap that makes it dififi- 
cult to paint, and oil stain is not the best for staining 
it, as it takes a long time for drying, even with plenty 
of driers. It contains no pitch. The wood has good 
color, and natural finish becomes it very handsomely. 

Cypress. — This is a Southern tree, the Taxodium 
Distichiim of the scientist; its leaves being narrow 
places it among the soft woods. Locally it is variously 
known as bald, black, white, red, and deciduous cypress. 
It is not as abundant as the pines, and in its uses and 
appearance it is not unlike white cedar. It is a very 
durable wood, has good color, is free from sap, and 
has straight grain; it is light and strong, and is ex- 
tensively used in house building. It grows darker 
with age, but not unsightly, but rather rich; exposed 
to exterior influences it grows both dark and unsightly, 
though commonly coated with paint. One objection 
to it as a cabinet or house-trim wood is the rising of 
its grain under the influence of dampness; it should 
always be finished as soon as possible after being made 
ready for the finish. 

Hard Pine. — The pine belongs to a large family 
of useful trees, the Conifercr. It is not difiicult to dis- 
tinguish a pine from a spruce, fir, larch, cedar, etc., 



DESCRIPTION OF THE WOODS USED 13' 

of the same family, and formerly included in the same 
genus, Pinus. The pine is easily known by its ever- 
green, needle-like and short or long leaves and its cones. 
Of the some seventy-six species known, twenty-six are 
found in the United States, among which the most com- 
mon are the white pine, now nearing extinction, the 
long-leaf. Southern yellow, or Georgia pine, the loblolly 
and the red pine. Then there is the Douglass pine of 
the Pacific coast, and sometimes called the Oregon pine 
and Douglass spruce, a tree that sometimes reaches a 
height of 300 feet, with a diameter of 15 feet. The 
long-leaf pine, called also the Georgia pine, hard pine, 
yellow pine, and red pine, is one of the most important 
of the family in this country. It is a good building 
wood, and furnishes rosin, turpentine, etc. It is a very 
hard, strong, compact wood, yellow or reddish of 
color. 

The long-leaved pine is called for distinction the 
Southern yellow pine, but the name yellow pine is ap- 
plicable to any of various species of Pinus, but espe- 
cially of the common yellow pine found east of the 
Rocky Mountains, and which is also known as spruce, 
bull pine, and, in contrast with the Southern pine, short- 
leaved pine. White pine is a term applied to any one 
of several species of Pinus having a white or whitish 
wood, and their leaves in clusters of five. The once 
common white pine of the United States and Canada 
has been the most valuable building lumber tree we 
have ever had. There are other kinds of white pine 
to take its place, but in color, texture, or grain, there is 
none equal to the old white pine. But there is a vast 
quantity of the other white pines. 

Sycamore. — This is the American plane tree, but 
more commonly known as the sycamore or button- 
ball. It is one of several trees constituting the genus 
Platanus. It differs so much in appearance from any 



14 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

other tree that it is one of the most easily recognized. 
Its wood is very dense, its markings beautiful, and it 
is further improved in the latter respect by quarter- 
sawing. It takes a handsome finish. Oregon sycamore 
resembles the birch of the Eastern states in its mark- 
ings, having waving lines that run close together. It is 
a tough and strong wood, and well adapted for making 
veneers. 

Ash. — There are several varieties of the ash, but 
the ash tree furnishing the most valuable timber of any 
is the white ash (Framnus Americana) of the United 
States and Canada, a large forest tree having a light, 
tough, elastic, hard, close-grained wood, specially 
adapted for making agricultural implements, wagons, 
etc., no other wood serving as well the purposes men- 
tioned. 

The ash of the Eastern states has a close, even grain, 
while that of Oregon has peculiar figurings of con- 
centric curves, taking a very fine polish. Ash is now 
used in connection with common oak, and passes as oak 
when stained and finished as such. Although the grain 
of the two woods is entirely different, yet with filling 
and staining ash looks very much like oak of a certain 
kind. It is often used for making cheap furniture, or 
used with oak in the same piece of furniture, to 
save the costlier oak. Hungarian ash has a beautiful 
burl, making fine panels and veneers. The English 
white ash is similar to the American and Canada white 
ash. 

Rosewood. — A fragrant cabinet wood having a close 
grain, which is more or less variegated, and very hard 
and dark. It is a Brazilian tree, of the genus Dalbergia, 
the wood which we meet with being the D. Nigra, the 
most highly prized of the many members of the genus. 
It derives its name from the fact that when fresh the 
wood is rose-scented. There are inferior grades of 



DESCRIPTION OF THE WOODS USED 15 

this family of trees, of other species, known as violet 
wood, kingwood, etc. 

Cherry. — This is one of the most valuable of all 
our native woods, bearing a valuable fruit, yielding a 
fine wood for cabinet work, and giving a good flame 
when used for firewood. It belongs to the genus 
Primus, the two most useful cabinet woods being the 
wild black and the cultivated cherry. It has a close 
grain. Its natural color is fine, but it is usually stained 
mahogany color, giving an imitation mahogany finish 
excelled by no other wood. 

Chestnut. — A member of the oak family, Casfanea 
vesca, found growing in poor, stony soils in the eastern 
part of the United States, and not doing well in rich 
soils. It has a coarse grain and very open pore, re- 
quiring a heavy paste filler. Cheap furniture is made 
from chestnut, and the wood is filled and stained to 
imitate oak, though it is mostly finished natural in 
house trim. It has many good physical features, being 
easy to work, not inclined to warp or twist, and not 
affected by dampness; but its coarse grain and very 
coarse heart-growths make it undesirable for cabinet 
work. Since the advent a few years ago of an im- 
ported fungus disease that attacked the tree there is 
very little left alive at this writing. 



WOOD FILLING 

The woods used in constructing furniture and house 
trim, and in fine cabinet work, etc., may be placed 
in,. two groups, hard and soft woods, or open-grain 
and close-grain. The latter is perhaps the best classi- 
fication, for there are some woods whose texture is 
hard, while its grain may be open or close. Maple, for 
instance, has a very close grain, but it is a hard wood. 
White pine has a close grain, and it is a soft wood. 
The following lists show the woods as generally con- 
sidered by wood finishers. 



Close-Grained 


Open-Grained 


Birch 


Ash 


Bass 


Beech 


Cedar 


Butternut 


Cypress 


Baywood 


Gum 


Chestnut 


Maple 


Elm 


Oregon Pine 


Mahogany 


Poplar 


Oak 


Spruce 


Pitch Pine 


Satinwood 


Rosewood 


Sycamore 


Walnut 


Tamarach 




White Pine 




Washington Fir 




Yellow Pine 




Redwood 





Filling Open-Grain Woods. — Where the grain 
is open enough to require filling, in order to provide a 
solid foundation for the several coatings of varnish a 
paste filler must be used. This filler is made rather 
stiff, but is thinned more or less, according to the 
nature of the wood, before using. The solids of the 

16 



WOOD FILLING 17 

filler fill up the pores, while the liquids saturate the 
cellular tissue of the wood, and thus prevent the exces- 
sive absorption of the liquid parts of the varnish. In 
other words, the filling is to provide a foundation, as 
previously stated. The better this is done the more 
satisfactory will the finish be. Some woods are so 
very open of pore or grain that one coat of paste filler 
hardly suffices, and hence two coats must be given, or 
one coat of the filler and one coat of a surfacer, con- 
cerning which more will be said further on. 

When filling wood let us first take into consideration 
the character of the wood as to its natural color. We 
can either finish so as to show the natural color, very 
slightly altered by the filler, etc., or finish by staining 
the wood more or less, as may be required. The paste 
wood filler is without coloring, excepting a slight putty 
hue, unless pigment is added to it; it will not alter 
the natural color of a light colored or white wood un- 
less we add coloring to it, and this is sometimes done. 
But such is not the usual method for producing a color 
finish; we must stain the wood before filling it, then 
fill with paste filler, stained or natural, according to 
the finish desired, and which will be discussed more 
specifically in another place. Sometimes the wood 
is stained, and unstained filler is used, this in order to 
obtain certain special effects. 

Some wood finishers practice filling or saturating 
the wood with raw linseed oil before paste or liquid 
filler is applied, adding a little japan driers to it. The 
purpose is apparent; it is to prevent excessive absorp- 
tion of liquids from the filler and other subsequent 
coats. The practice is to be commended, excepting 
where the wood is of such character that oil will cause 
it to darken where a light or natural effect is wanted 
on white or pale wood. It will do on most woods, 
however, though very few finishers employ the method, 



18 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

probably on account of the extra time required in the 
work. 

There is a brush made especially for applying paste 
wood filler, but many finishers prefer a half-worn flat 
paint brush, one that is rather stubby ; that is best for 
large surfaces, but for smaller parts it is found desir- 
able to use a round paint brush, half-worn or short of 
bristle. Apply a good full coat of paste filler, and rub 
it well into the wood, for unless the wood becomes filled 
with the semi-liquid paste the finish will prove a failure. 
It is here that many finishers fail, not because they do 
not know better, but because careless or anxious to turn 
out quick work, which the employer usually demands. 
Sometimes a boy is set at this work, and of course the 
result is bad work, varnish full of pinholes, for 
instance. 

After cotting the work liberally with paste filler and 
rubbing it in, let the job stand for about twenty min- 
utes, more or less, according to temperature, the stuff 
drying very quickly in a very warm atmosphere, and 
slowly in a damp or cool one. It is safer to examine 
the stuff now and then, and just as soon as it has set, 
being neither dry nor wet, begin to rub off, using a pad 
of tow, or a bit of coarse burlap, and rub across the 
grain. As you rub press down on the pad, to keep the 
wood full of the paste, at the same time removing 
excess of filler from the surface. When this work is 
not done carefully the pad will take out some of the 
filler from the pores or grain, and so defeat the pur- 
pose of the filling. It may thus be seen that simple as 
wood filling seems, yet it requires a skilled hand to do 
it right. 

When 3^ou begin to rub the filler see that the filler is 
neither too dry nor too liquid. In the former case it 
will be difficult to rub out, and in the other some of 
the filler will be taken from the pores. After rub- 



WOOD FILLING 19 

bing, let the work stand for a day or, better still, two 
days, then sandpaper the work, to remove surplus filler 
and make the surface smooth. 

The filler should be quite dry before the work is 
coated with sur facer or varnish, because if not dry it 
might cause trouble with the finish. The foundation 
is a very important part of the work of finishing wood, 
and when carelessly done the finish cannot endure, no 
matter how well it may be done. 

I have found it useful to examine the filling with a 
low-power glass, which will show defective filling if 
it is there. The surface that appears perfect to the 
unaided eye may give quite another story when viewed 
by the magnifying glass. Should such an examination 
show that the wood has not been perfectly filled, and 
especially if the job is to be an extra fine one, you had 
better apply another filling, either of thinned paste 
or with a sur facer. The subsequent coats of varnish 
will not fill the wood where the filler has not done so 
perfectly. Usually the one coat of filler does, especially 
on common or ordinary work. 

Carved parts, and other places difficult to get at with 
the filler brush, should be filled with paste filler made 
thinner than that used on the main body of the work. 
Apply it with a sash tool, say size No. 4. Then wipe 
off lightly with a bit of cotton rag. Should the filler 
set too quickly add a few drops of raw linseed oil to it. 
When the parts are dry rub smooth with No. o or 00 
sandpaper; then dust off and finish. Surplus filler 
found in the corners, moldings, etc., may be removed 
with a piece of soft pine wood, whittled to a point. 
Another useful tool for such work is the bone handle 
of a toothbrush, one end filed to a point, the other end 
ground to a chisel shape. 

Wood fillers are a commercial article, though some 
finishers prefer to make them in the shop. Personally T 



20 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

prefer the ready-made fjllers, because they are in better 
condition for use than those prepared by hand; they 
are made from the proper materials, and are ground 
and made even of texture in a decree not possible by 
hand, unless passed through a hand-mill. Something 
will of course be saved in cost by shop mixing, but 
even this merit has limitations, for the workman may 
spend too much time at the work, and so overbalance 
any possible saving. Yet in certain contingencies, as 
where a s])ecial kind of filler may be required, or where 
only a small quantity of filler may be needed, for a cer- 
tain work, it will be better to make it by hand, As op- 
posed to my preference, I have the opinion of another 
finisher, one of many years' experience, and who says: 
"If one could be sure of getting fresh-made filler there 
might be an advantage in buying the ready-made, where 
one uses large (piantities of it; we use between 300 and 
400 pounds of liller a week. All that is required is a 
tub capable of holding the quantity required, say up to 
300 pounds, and vessels for weighing and measuring 
tlie ingredients. l\it in the oils, add coloring if de- 
sired, and mix, then stir in the silex, a little at a time, 
working- it in with the hands." 

Leaving the question with the reader, let us now 
consider the subject of filler formulT. These may be 
placed in two classes, commercial and shop-made. Of 
the former little needs be said. Factory formulas 
vary, according to quality and the use it may be in- 
tended for. The best grades have a silex base, but 
some good ones do not contain silex, but some other 
suitable base, such as barytes, China clay, etc. The 
following list of fillers embraces about all the paste 
fillers used. 

P)EST Silex Paste Filler. — Mix together two parts 
of the best coach japan, and three parts of pure raw 
linseed oil, both by weight; in a suitable tub (^r other 



'fc> 



WOOD FILLING 

vessel place tlie liquid, add color if desired, by stirriu|^ 
in, then mix in fine powdered silex to form a stiff paste. 
If you can run the mass through a hand-mill it will give 
a better mixed paste and save time. If this cannot be 
done, then work the mass with a paddle, or, as some 
do, with the hands, until perfect admixture is secured. 
When wanted for use the paste may be thinned down 
with turpentine to any required consistency. 

A Light Paste Filler. — Take twenty-five pounds 
of best floated silex and eight pounds of China clay, 
mixed to form a paste with four and one-half gallons u 
of raw linseed oil and three pints of best liquid driers, 
of light color. 

Commercial Dark Paste Filler. — One hundred 
pounds of floated silica, three pounds of powdered soap- 
stone (steatite), three pounds of Vandyke brown, one 
and one-half pounds of burnt sienna, two and one-half 
pounds of burnt umber, two and one-half gallons of 
raw linseed oil, and three gallons of strong thin driers. 

Silica-China Clay Filler. — Mix to a paste 
twenty-five pounds of floated silica, four pounds of 
China clay, three quarts of raw linseed oil, and three 
quarts of the best grade of japan driers. 

A smaller quantity of the above filler, and with some 
improvement in the formula, may be made by taking 
four and one-half pounds of the silica and one-half pint 
each of raw linseed oil, pale drying japan, or ja])an 
gold size, and turpentine. 

Compound Paste Filler. — Mix together one 
pound of cornstarch, half-pound of powdered pumice- 
stone, of the finest texture, one gill of shellac, one gill 
of japan, and one-half pint of boiled linseed oil. Color 
if required. 

Barytes Paste Filler. — Barytes fifty pounds, raw 
linseed oil one cjuart, very strong japan driers one 
quart, turpentine one quart, water one quart, brown 



22 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

soap six ounces, and pulverized borax one ounce. Add 
the soap and borax to the water and mix well together. 
Then add this to the other liquids and stir all together. 

Cornstarch Paste Filler. — Mix together one 
pound of corn starch and one-half pound of fine flour 
pumicestone, then add one-half pint of boiled linseed 
oil and one-fourth pint of shellac varnish. Add any- 
coloring desired. Mix to a paste, and thin for use 
as required. An expert sent us the formula as being 
the best of its class. 

Boiled Cornstarch Filler. — Mix together one 
quart each of raw and boiled oil, gold size and turpen- 
tine. Boil some cornstarch and while it is boiling add a 
little magnesia, two ounces to the pound of starch. 
Let the mass boil for about fifteen minutes. Any color- 
ing may be used, and silica may be used in place of 
starch, if desired. When cold thin up with the liquid 
mixture. 

Regarding cornstarch as a filler, it was the first base 
used for the purpose of filling woods. Prior to its use 
varnish was applied and left to become dry, but not 
hard, then it was forced into the wood by means of a 
chisel-shaped soft wood paddle. The demerits of corn- 
starch as a filler are its susceptibility to dampness, caus- 
ing it to swell in the wood; and its liability to decay, 
under certain conditions, as it is a vegetable matter. 
It will appear strange to some that the starch, so pro- 
tected by its surroundings of a varnish nature, should 
be affected by moisture or dampness. But it must be 
remembered that linseed oil is not impervious to damp- 
ness, as may easily be proved by placing water on some 
freshly applied but dry paint. The swelling of the 
coat of paint will indicate its absorption of water. So 
that we may conclude that starch docs not form a good 
filler. It also does not fill the grain as well as silica, 
nor does it rub out as well. Yet some finishers prefer 



WOOD FILLING 23 

and use it. Some of these advocates of starch use a 
liquid formed from equal parts of boiled oil and japan, 
others equal parts of boiled oil, japan and turpentine. 
In both cases the starch is made to a paste and thinned 
with turpentine for use. A good way is to pour the 
liquid over the starch and let it stand until the mass is 
well soaked with the liquid ; cover it to prevent evapora- 
tion of the volatile liquid. Then the mass is easily- 
mixed. If it should dry too rapidly add a few drops 
of raw oil. If too thick, add a little turpentine or 
benzine; the latter is the better, perhaps, in that it 
permits of the application and rubbing in, and that done 
the volatile thinner escapes and leaves the filling less 
elastic or thin. 

Car Painters' Filler. — This formula is given by 
an expert car painter. Dry white lead one hundred 
pounds, best gilders' whiting one hundred pounds, key- 
stone filler one hundred pounds, floated silica fifty 
pounds, dry lampblack five pounds, raw oil one-half 
pint, turpentine two gallons, brown japan seven gallons, 
and copal varnish two gallons. 

Plaster of Paris Filler. — This formula is given 
simply to show how some paste fillers may be made, 
and are made and sold. Take plaster of Paris and 
form into a paste with equal parts of turpentine and 
japan driers ; a little raw oil will make the filler work 
easier. It may be well to first add rather sparingly of 
the driers, trying the paste for its setting quality, and if 
too slow add more driers. A little litharge, some think, 
improves the filler. Stain, dry, may be used with it. 
Sometimes marble dust is used in place of the plaster of 
Paris. And of course silica may be used in place of 
either. 

Wax Filler for Hardwood.— Take equal parts of 
raw oil, gold size japan and turpentine and mix with 
beeswax at the rate of four ounces of wax to the quart 



24 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

of turpentine, first melting the wax in the turpentine. 
Now stir into the wax and turpentine enough floated 
silica to form a rather stiff paste, which then should 
be run through a hand mill or fine sieve. Thin with 
turpentine for use. 

Glue Paste Filler. — Place seven pounds (almost 
one gallon) of water in a suitable vessel and add to 
it one pound of the best glue. Let it stand, say over 
night, in which time it should have taken up all the 
water it is capable of; then set the vessel and its con- 
tents in another vessel of sufficient size and containing 
boiling water, or at least hot water, set the vessels on 
the fire and boil until all the glue is dissolved. This 
will require but a few minutes. Then stir in, while hot, 
one or two pounds of dry powdered litharge and 
two pounds of plaster of Paris. Mix and let cool ; it 
is then ready for use. It is intended for special pur- 
poses. 

Non-Shrinkable Paste Filler. — Mix a batter of 
flour paste, as for paper hanging, and boil it. When 
sufficiently boiled set it away to cool. It should be 
cold but not too stiff when placed on a mixing board ; it 
should be fluid enough to run from the board when 
mixing it. Now mix in another vessel raw linseed oil 
and whiting to the same consistency as the flour paste, 
then mix the two masses together; add enough japan 
driers to make the mixture dry right. For use thin 
with benzine. You may not be successful with it at 
first, as the filler must dry just right, harden, and act 
in the same manner as ordinary paste fillers. 

Lime and Flour Paste Filler. — Mix one pound 
of powdered lime with two pounds of rye flour and 
form into a paste with common varnish. If it is de- 
sired to have it colored, use any dry pigment. Whiting 
may be used in place of lime. 

Adding Color to Paste Filler. — It should be 



WOOD FILLING 25 

stated here that in proportion as we add coloring mat= 
ter we weaken it as a filler. Some colored paste fillers 
contain as much as one-fourth their mass of pigment 
coloring. But by using dyes the objection to coloring 
is of course removed. 

When you wish to color a filler to match a certain 
kind of wood add the color very gradually, trying it at 
intervals as you proceed, by comparison with the wood. 
Make the filler rather darker than the wood, for the 
wood, if new, will darken slightly with the lapse of 
time; then wopd and coloring will be about the same. 
For very dark wood it is better to make the filler than 
buy it. The proper way to color filler is thus : Take 
the lightest color first, if more than one is to be em- 
ployed ; mix with some linseed oil ; then take the darker 
color and mix it with a little turpentine ; add it to the 
oil mixture, and mix both together; then add and mix 
in the rest of the thinners. 

Paste filler should always be made stiff, in order to 
save on the volatile thinners, which may be added when 
ready to use. 

Table of Colors Used in Paste Fillers 

Light Oak. — Use raw sienna or yellow ocher. 

Dark Oak. — Use burnt umber or drop black, or the 
two together. 

Golden Oak. — Use burnt umber or asphaltum, or 
both together. 

Walnut. — Use burnt umber enriched with a little 
Venetian red or rose pink. 

Black Walnut. — Color the paste filler with Van- 
dyke brown. 

Mahogany. — Use burnt Italian sienna, rose pink, 
and a little drop black. 

Redwood. — Use burnt sienna and a little rose pink. 



26 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

Brazil Wood. — Use rose pink. 

Cherry. — Use either burnt sienna or Venetian red. 

Fillers for the Various Woods 

Ash. — A wood having very open pores and coarse 
of fiber. Mix together two parts of pale Hnseed oil 
(bleached by preference), three parts of japan gold 
size, and one part of turpentine; add fine floated silica 
to form a paste. 

Butternut. — Same as for ash. 

Beech. — Same as for birch and red gum. 

Birch. — Use a surfacer, made from thin white 
shellac varnish (a pound of bleached shellac to the 
gallon of alcohol). 

Cherry. — Best whiting one pound, plaster of Paris 
two pounds, dry burnt sienna one and one-half ounces, 
dry Venetian red one ounce, boiled oil one quart, tur- 
pentine and brown japan one pint each. Silica may be 
used in place of whiting, but the latter enters the pores 
better, and the plaster of Paris gives sufficient coarse 
material. 

Cypress. — Being a close-grained wood it may be 
surfaced with either liquid filler, made by thinning 
paste filler, or with a heavy coat of shellac. Shellac 
is the best of the two surfacers, and two thin coats are 
better than one heavy coat. 

Chestnut. — A coarse, open-grained wood, and 
hence requires a stiff paste filler. The filler may be 
used without coloring, unless for special cases, as where 
stain may be needed to make different parts match 
when they do not do so naturally. 

Elm. — Coarse grained and requiring same filling as 
chestnut. 

Ebony. — Mix plaster of Paris with lampblack and 
thin to a paste with brown japan or gold size. 



WOOD KlI.lJiNG 27 

Maple,— Use a surfacer, or white shellac varnish. 

Mahogany. — Take equal parts by weight of best 
whiting, plaster of Paris, flour pumicestone, and dry 
powdered litharge, to which may be added small 
amounts of pulverized soapstone, Vandyke brown, 
burnt sienna and yellow ocher, these in the dry condi- 
tion. Mix to a paste with one pint of japan, two pints 
of boiled linseed oil, and three pints of turpentine; 
grind in a hand-mill. 

Oak. — To give the natural color finish, use the usual 
uncolored silica filler. To give a higher color than 
the natural finish add some burnt sienna to the filler. 
For dark oak the filler given for ebony will do ; burnt 
umber may be substituted for the black given in that 
formula. For golden oak, color the ordinary paste 
filler with burnt umber and asphaltum, four ounces of 
the former and one-half pint of the latter to ten pounds 
of paste filler. 

Rosewood. — Use the same filler as given for ma- 
hogany. 

Red Gum. — Same as for birch. 

Redwood. — Cornstarch one pound, dry burnt sienna 
one-fourth pound, mixed with one quart of turpentine, 
and a tablespoonful each of raw linseed oil and brown 
japan. 

Walnut. — Mix together equal parts of China clay 
and rye flour, coloring with burnt umber; mix to a 
paste with two parts each of turpentine and japan gold 
size, and one part of boiled oil. 

White Pine.— Surface with white japan or uncol- 
ored paste filler^ thinned with turpentine to a liquid 



Some Paste Filler Notes 
The filling may be coated over in twelve hours after 



28 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

it has been applied, but twice that time would pro- 
duce better results in the finishing. 

Two thin coats of filler are better than one very 
stiff coat, and the coats should have twelve hours be- 
tween. 

An old shop rule was to use from twelve to fourteen 
pounds of stiff paste to the gallon of thinners. 

A filler should be made to suit the kind of wood 
you have in hand; it should be neither too heavy nor 
too light in weight. Heavy filler causes rough surface, 
difficult to make smooth. 

After filling the wood wait until the filler has a 
dead, whitish appearance before rubbing off. Rub 
across the grain of the wood, not with the grain. 

Paste filler should fill these conditions : It should fill 
the wood perfectly; it should be solid and not easily 
affected by moisture or atmospheric conditions of any 
sort ; it should readily unite with the fibers of the wood, 
so that nothing can disturb or alter it as long as the 
wood remains intact ; it should be translucent, showing 
up color and grain of the wood ; it should be a simple 
compound, not costly, and easy of application and rub- 
bing out, and of such nature that it will never cause 
swelling or shrinkage. 

Too much oil is not desirable in a paste filler. The 
oil will shrink, causing the filler to fall away, and thus 
marring the finished surface. Although we have given 
formulas that contain other bases than pulverized silica, 
we still give the preference to the latter substance as a 
base. A pure sample of pulverized silica will show 
perfect translucency, and it may be ground to an im- 
palpably fine powder without injuring its virtue as a 
filler; and this is important, as we demand a fine 
base substance. No matter how fine you grind or 
pulverize the silica rock it will still retain its crystal- 
line formation, and it is the little crystals that hold the 



WOOD FILLING 29 

filler in the pores of the wood. Silica has also an affin= 
ity for the liquids necessary for its preparation as a 
filler. 

Liquid Wood Fillers. — Liquid filler is simply a 
varnish slighHy bodied with silica or similar substance. 
This filler is also a surfacer. The terms are inter- 
changeable. The purpose of such liquids is to form a 
foundation for the finishing coats of varnish. The rea- 
son they are used instead of paste filler is this : Paste 
filler is too coarse and heavy to enter into the close- 
fibered woods that liquid surfacer is used on. Shellac 
varnish is sometimes used as a surfacer, but it costs 
more than varnish, and in most cases possesses no 
advantage over ordinary varnish surfacer; in fact, some 
finishers prefer the latter. 

If you make your own surfacer or liquid filler use 
the best materials ; it is advised that you use the same 
grade of varnish that you will use over the surfacer. 
Such a surfacer will work easier than one made with 
cheap varnish, and it will give a smoother job and 
bear up the finish better. As one expert says, two 
coats of varnish on such a surfacer will equal three 
coats over shellac. 

Here is a good formula : Mix together one gallon 
of good copal varnish, one-half gallon of light brown 
japan, and one pint of turpentine. Sift into this six 
pounds of floated silica, and stir until perfectly mixed ; 
let it stand twenty-four hours, thin out with tur- 
pentine, and strain through cheese-cloth. This surfacer 
should be allowed at least twenty-four hours for dry- 
ing before sandpapering and applying the varnish 
coats; all should be done in a temperature of about 
72 deg. F. 

Liquid filler or surfacer should be applied like var- 
nish, in full, flowing coats, leveling it out to form as 
smooth a surface as possible. When a cheap surfacer 



30 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

is used there is apt to be a more or less rough or 
ridgey surface, hard to make smooth with sandpaper. 
One merit at least of shellac is that it can be used very- 
thin, and hence it flows out smooth, so that it will not 
need the same amount of smoothing as average copal 
varnish surfacer. 

Sometimes liquid filler is used on such wood as oak, 
to save time that would be necessary with paste filler, 
but such work is very cheap-looking. Much house 
trim is done that way, with no sandpapering and but 
one coat of copal varnish over the filling. In this case 
the filler is made heavier than ordinary surfacers. 

When liquid filler is to be colored we meet with a 
new difiiculty if we use silica, because the pigment is 
much lighter in gravity than the silica, as a rule, and 
hence when mixed with thin varnish it will settle more 
or less ; of course it may be kept stirred, but that is a 
bother and is apt to be forgotten ; the result being that 
the coloring is unequal and the work spotty. To avoid 
this difficulty cornstarch may be used in place of silica. 
There may also be used China clay, talc, whiting, etc., 
but these have the fault of fading out or whitening in 
the wood, even though the coloring is added. Car- 
bonate of magnesia, sometimes used in fillers, holds 
up pretty well, and is much better than whiting. As 
to the filler whitening in the wood, even silica will do 
this to a certain, though not to a serious extent. 

Silica paste filler may be thinned down to the de- 
sired consistency and be used as a liquid filler or sur- 
facer. To prepare paste filler for this purpose first 
add varnish, to form a rather stiff liquid, then add 
turpentine or benzine to form the surfacer. 

Mention has been made of starch filler, but it was 
not explained why starch was preferred by some fin- 
ishers. The reason is that such a filler, paste or liquid, 
works easier than the silica filler, and also on account 



WOOD FILLING 31 

of being soft the workman can rush the work faster 
than when using siHca filler. But it does not hold up 
varnish as well, though it seems to fill the wood all 
right, but as it dries it hardens and shrinks, leaving 
wood but poorly filled. Moreover, it requires more 
time for hardening, so that as a rule the varnish coats 
are applied too soon. In a short time the finish will 
look poorly filled, and the varnish only shows this up 
more plainly. And where this is not very evident to 
the naked eye it is all too evident when viewed under 
the microscope. 

Too much praise cannot be given to silica as a fill- 
ing substance, yet it would be wrong not to mention 
any possible fault; it has at least two, namely, it set- 
tles badly in the pot when in use, and it dries out too 
rapidly for easy work. Yet even these faults are not 
serious, because we may overcome the rapid drying 
with a few drops of raw oil, and too quick setting is 
an evidence of its durability, besides which most fin- 
ishers like to have it set soon so that the job may be 
pushed. Some finishers add a great deal of oil to the 
filler, or surfacer, and in this case the drying would be 
rather slow, though easier to handle. 

Where surfacer or liquid filler is bought by the bar- 
rel the vessel should be kept covered, to keep out dust 
and dirt and to prevent evaporation of its volatile in- 
gredients. 

Some Liquid Filler Formulas 

Silica Liquid Filler. — Use the finest silica, that 
which is known as floated being the best, and add 
from four to six pounds to the gallon of good varnish, 
many using coach varnish, the hard drying grade. 
To this add two quarts of brown japan and one pint 
of turpentine. Another liquid, a mixture of equal 



32 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

parts of raw oil, gold size japan and turpentine, may 
be used in place of varnish. These proportions will 
give a stiff paste, which may then be thinned for use 
with turpentine. Another mixing liquid is composed 
of one gallon of good varnish, with driers sufficient 
to dry the surfacer in the desired time; much differ- 
ence exists in the strength of the various japan driers, 
hence it is best to try the drier if you are not accus- 
tomed to the use of a particular brand that you have, 
and after ascertaining its strength it will be easy to fix 
upon a formula containing it. 

Transparent Filler. — This is useful on white or 
very light colored woods, where the natural color and 
grain is to be preserved. Mix two pounds each of 
cornstarch and fine powdered pumicestone, thinning 
with one pint of shellac varnish, the white or bleached, 
and boiled linseed oil. Mix to form a paste, and thin 
for use with turpentine. Silica may be used in place 
of pumicestone. For certain jobs white damar var- 
nish may be used in lieu of white shellac, but damar 
varnish is very soft. It has been used on church work 
where the ordinary colorless filler stained the wood 
more than was desired, and it preserved its whiteness 
and did not need any sandpapering; two coats of copal 
varnish over the damar gave a good finish. 

China Clay Filler. — Mix together one gallon of 
pale, hard-drying carriage body varnish and one pint 
each of turpentine and pale japan. To two and one- 
half pounds of the clay add enough liquid to form a 
paste, which should be run through a hand-mill, 
though hand-mixing will do, if done thoroughly. The 
rest of the liquid may then be stirred in ; stir it briskly 
until the mass is mixed perfectly. May be used as a 
paste filler if not thinned as for liquid filler. 

Imitation Shellac Varnish.— Take equal parts 
of raw oil, turpentine, brown japan and rubbing var- 



WOOD FILLING 33 

nish, and add cornstarch to form a paste. It is made 
stiffer than the usual surfacer or liquid filler, being a 
little thicker than ordinary oil paint, but it must not be 
too heavy or thick, or it will not be easy to manage. 
After its application let it set, then rub with a coarse 
cloth, same as for paste filler, and rub well into the 
wood; give two coats of this filler, if the nature of 
the wood requires it. 

Another formula calls for four pounds of floated 
silica, or China clay, and one quart of japan, beating 
the mass with a paddle until mixed perfectly. Then 
add, while stirring, six quarts of the best hard-oil fin- 
ish or other varnish of like grade, after which let the 
mass stand an hour or so, then run through a fine 
sieve or muslin. Thin for use. 

Oil-Thinned Filler. — Mention has been made of 
the use of oil in paste fillers. Many of the best yachts 
are said to have all exposed woodwork done with oil- 
thinned filler or surfacer, with coats of spar varnish 
for the finish. This spar is an elastic varnish. Each 
coat, of which there may be several, is allowed ample 
time for drying, and each coat is well sandpapered. 
The process demands much time and work, but this 
is necessary owing to the wear such work has to sus- 
tain. Some steamships have all exposed woodwork 
done this way. 

Concluding Remarks. — As previously stated, the 
terms surfacing and liquid filling are synonymous. 
Then there is the term priming, another finishing room 
technical term for the first coat, and which is identical 
with the other terms mentioned. In short, the act of 
coating the wood the first time embraces filling and 
making a foundation for the varnish coats that are 
to follow. But sometimes a filler or surfacer follows 
a paste filler, to complete the filling when the first coat 
does not do it perfectly. 



34 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

These liquid coatings should never contain any 
rosin, for rosin will cause trouble with the finish. 

Some finishers do not use shellac under copal var- 
nish, saying that the latter will not adhere perfectly 
to the shellac. But if the shellac has been well sand- 
papered there is no danger of non-adhesion. Nor does 
it often occur that adhesion is defective where no 
sandpapering is done. 

There may be liquid fillers or surfacers on the 
market that contain some water; water will raise the 
grain of the wood, hence it should never be used in 
such coatings. 

Filling and Finishing the Various Woods 

Ash.— A coarse, open=grained wood, and light in 
color. Fill with stiff paste fiJler, uncolored. The 
fi_nishing is same as for oak. 

Butternut. — Sometimes called white walnut. 
Same filler and finishing as ash and oak. 

Beech. — A close-grained wood, with delicate mark- 
ings; there is also a curly variety, and the quarter- 
sawed wood is very handsome. Beech may be finished 
natural, or be stained walnut, cherry or mahogany. 
Natural finish should have a full gloss. Plain beech 
should be carefully stained, owing to the danger of 
obscuring its rather indistinct markings ; a transparent 
stain is best, and if a pigment stain is used it should be 
wiped off with care, as soon as possible after being 
applied. Water stain should be used, but some prefer 
a spirit stain or chemical stain in oil. 

Birch. — This is a close-grained wood and requires 
a liquid filler, light in color for natural finish, and 
darker for stained finish. If shellac is used take white 
shellac or orange, respectively. As to shellac, some 
use as much as five pounds to the gallon of alcohol. 



WOOD FILLING 3S 

while others say a thin coating is better, say, one pound 
of shellac to the gallon. Use your judgment. 

When birch is intended to imitate certain other 
woods, the curly red wood is to be preferred. The 
imitation may be mahogany, golden oak, green oak, or 
rich chocolate brown. Natural finish of both red and 
white birch is very fine, and it should have its last coat 
made a dull finish. Some think that this wood is 
spoiled by staining. Some finishers use paste filler, 
saying that it lessens the effect of water-stain on the 
wood. When thus filled the work is left to stand 
twenty-four hours, when it is well sandpapered and 
given a priming coat, tinted to required shade of color 
wanted. Lake color is best for this purpose. In an- 
other twenty-four hours sandpaper again and flow on 
a full coat of the best pale cabinet polishing varnish. 
Finish by polishing, as described elsewhere. 

Usually there are three finishes, namely, golden, 
golden red and dark red. For the golden finish use 
raw and burnt sienna, with a touch of lemon chrome 
yellow. Oil-colors are indicated here. Mix the pig- 
ments with the surfacer, following with a second coat 
of uncolored surfacer or thin varnish, and finishing 
with a coat of polishing varnish, which may be pol- 
ished as desired. A finer effect may be obtained by 
using red and yellow lakes; these will show a color- 
tone the same as the oil pigments, but with the differ- 
ence that the coloring will be transparent, leaving none 
of the little flakes of color seen after using the oil- 
color method. The light red may be made from burnt 
sienna, and the dark red from burnt sienna and Van- 
dyke brown. These colors are also sometimes applied 
as a stain, being thinned out with turpentine. In some 
cases the pigments are combined with the primer or 
surfacer. This latter method is perhaps the best, but 
the use of transparent pigments is advised. 



Z6 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

To stain dark birch mahogany color, first give it a 
weak sokition of bichromate of potash; let this dry; 
then the following stain : Rose pink, Vandyke brown, 
and burnt sienna, in such proportions as will give you 
the desired color. Apply the stain, let it dry, sand- 
paper lightly with fine paper; then give it a coat of 
shellac, tinting the shellac with a little Bismarck 
brown, to give the wood a more uniform coloring. 

Birch may be made to imitate cherry or walnut, as 
well as mahogany. The last coat of varni5'h may be 
rubbed with o or oo fine pumicestone powder, rubbing 
with oil and not with water. A birch door stained ma- 
hogany color gives a beautiful effect in connection with 
white enameled woodwork, and this is, in fact, the 
general practice. Many prefer this effect to the real 
mahogany wood, especially where the curly birch is 
used. 

Oil stain is liable to obscure the grain of this wood, 
and rose lake will fade out in time. So that water 
stain is perhaps more useful, upon the whole, than oil 
stain ; it takes the dye deeper into the wood, and it does 
not rub through as oil stain will. However, as there 
is always a difference of opinion among even expert 
workmen, it will not seem strange that some prefer 
the oil stain, using burnt sienna, burnt umber, and rose 
lake, in due proportions. 

After staining the wood and allowing it to become 
dry, rub lightly with fine sandpaper, and give it two 
coats of thin shellac, rubbing each ; follow with a coat 
of varnish, which rub with curled hair, which is often 
safer than sandpaper, especially where there are cor- 
ners, etc., that may be cut by sandpaper. Finally a 
coat of varnish, which rub to a dull polish with fines! 
flour pumicestone and oil. The directions given in the 
foregoing are particularly useful for doing birch doors. 
The shellac is useful in holding up the varnish, which 



WOOD FILLING Zl 

is important from the fact that exterior work is ex- 
posed to the weather and sun, hence must be made 
even more durable than interior work. 

It should be stated in conclusion that birch, while 
possessed of many merits, has the reputation of being 
a "treacherous wood/' as it is expressed by some fin- 
ishers, on account of some chemical action which is 
said to take place between the wood and stain; the 
effect shows up in a year or less, appearing in the form 
of a dirty brown color. 

Cherry. — This is a fine wood for staining and fin- 
ishing to imitate mahogany. It is seldom finished nat- 
ural color, yet when so done the effect is very pleasing. 
Usually it is stained wath burnt sienna, in oil, as water 
staining often results in laps showing, thus spoiling 
the finish. When this occurs you can rectify the dam- 
age by wetting the edges of the laps with clear cold 
water, also the adjoining parts, after which apply the 
stain. 

First of all, see that the work is made smooth and 
perfectly free from dust, as the least speck showing on 
the finish will mar the whole, if a gloss finish is in 
view — and this is the best for cherry. Most finishers 
give the wood a sur facer, yet there are some that apply 
paste filler, with a thin coating of surfacer or shellac 
over that. In this manner cherry may be finished the 
same as maple. Burnt sienna makes a good stain, as 
for color, but Bismarck brown gives a handsome effect, 
though not so durable a coloring. Certain vegetable 
stains, such as alkanet root and dragon's blood, give 
very pleasing coloring. Apply stain freely, but avoid 
making air bubbles. 

Cypress.— This is a wood liable to give trouble, 
owing to its liability to contain moisture, for it is diffi- 
cult to dry perfectly. But once it is dry there is no 
more trouble to be apprehended than with other woods. 



38 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

If cypress is not perfectly dry when water stain is 
applied the wood is more than likely to show a risen 
grain. Another trouble met with in the finishing of 
this wood is the oily substance that is met with in 
different parts of it, existing more or less in every 
part. In general the finishing of cypress is about the 
same as with birch or cherry. Apply a first coat of 
shellac, when dry sandpaper, then give it two or three 
more coats of shellac, sandpapering each coat. Even 
all this shellac is not sure to hold back the oily sub- 
stance mentioned. It is well to first size the wood with 
benzol, which will cut the gum. Some recommend a 
size of vinegar stain, following with a coat of shellac, 
then with a coat of hard varnish. If water stain is to 
be used it will be wise to first prepare the wood with 
a coat of gelatin size or very thin shellac. Turpentine 
stain would be better than water stain, for it would not 
raise the grain as much. Never use a drop of oil on 
cypress, for it never would dry. Painters know this 
from experience in painting over the raw wood. Un- 
less the wood has been shellacked or otherwise treated 
to seal the gum, oil paint, or even turpentine paint, 
will not dry in a week. 

If it is desired to use cypress for imitation oak of 
Mission coloring, take the wood that is straight of 
grain. Make the stain from japan drop black, adding 
a drop of rose pink ; mix to a paste with Interior var- 
nish, and thin out with turpentine to form the stain; 
strain through cheese-cloth. The shade or depth of 
color may be modified by either thinning It or by add- 
ing more black. A greenish effect may be obtained by 
omitting the rose pink and substituting dark chrome 
green for the black. Imitation antique oak may be 
made with stain made from two parts of Vandyke 
brown and one part of raw umber, with a little drop 
black; these are to be ground-in- japan colors. Mix to 



WOOD FILLING 39 

a paste with varnish and thin out with turpentine. In 
either case the finish may be done in varnish, which 
may be rubbed down, or flatting varnish may be used, 
and some prefer wax finish. 

Chestnut. — This is another coarse wood, belong- 
ing to the same class as oak and ash. It should have 
a rather stiffer filler than that used on oak, but the 
work otherwise is the same as on oak. 

Elm. — This wood has a large pore, but it is not as 
deep as that of oak and ash; it is also easier to fill 
than those w^oods. Some elm wood contains sap spots, 
which show up lighter than the rest of the surface; 
such spots must be stained to look like the other parts. 
After the wood has been filled and sandpapered take 
a cup of water stain, composed of either burnt umber 
or Vandyke brown, and a soft rag and go over the 
sappy parts with it. This will give a uniform color- 
ing to the whole surface. 

One of the objectionable features of elm is the fuzz, 
sometimes alluded to by finishers as the wood's whis- 
kers. This catches the filler and causes muddy, un- 
even coloring. The best method of doing this wood 
was given us by an expert of many years' experience. 
It is sure to give satisfaction where carried out care- 
fully. Instead of using paste filler use the following 
materials and methods : 

First prepare a liquid surfacer by breaking up some 
silica paste filler of medium antique oak shade, using 
turpentine for this purpose, but no benzine. The lat- 
ter would cause too rapid evaporation, causing brush 
marks. Mix together as much of this filler as of liquid 
filler, then add half as much turpentine as you have of 
the two mixed surfacers or fillers. Stir the mass well. 
You may now make any desired change in the color by 
adding burnt umber or burnt sienna, or both. Apply 
this liquid with a flat chiseled soft-bristle brush, of a 



40 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

width of two and one=half inches. Apply the filler 
carefully, spread it uniformly and even, and wipe out 
the corners, etc. Lay it off as when staining a job, 
and when all is done let the work set, as usual in filler 
work. Rub off in about fifteen or twenty minutes. 
Let it then stand twelve hours or so, when it may be 
sandpapered with No. o sandpaper, rubbing lightly and 
making the surface smooth; then it is ready for the 
primer or surfacer. Let this stand twelve hours, then 
rub down smooth with sandpaper, when it may be 
given a coat of rubbing varnish, or gloss varnish, 
according to the kind of finish desired. 

Selected elm gives as beautiful a figure as any fine 
wood we know of. When properly finished the furni- 
ture made from it cannot be told from fine walnut 
by the public, hence it is often sold as walnut, being 
its equal in every respect. Veneers cut from selected 
elm show up the wood's beauty even better than in the 
solid. Such veneers should be cut by the rotary process 
to get the best effects. And experts have found that 
the best results in the finish can be brought about by 
filling with surfacer, as directed, using the surfacer 
very thin and sandpapering smooth, then applying an 
oil stain, which may be rubbed in and off with a rag 
or waste, giving a very pleasing uniform coloring. 
Or asphaltum stain as a base may be modified with 
some oil color, such as will give a brown tone to the 
finish. Do not make it too dark, as this will cause a 
too bold figure; if just dark enough the figure will be 
subdued, but yet apparent. 

Ebony. — One of the real hard Avoods; there is no 
difficulty classifying it. Seldom used in the wood fin- 
ishing department. It may be polished with oil and 
shellac, in the French polishing way, or be shellacked 
and varnished and rubbed. It looks best with a dull 
finish. 



WOOD FILLING ^1 

Maple.— A close=grain hard wood, with even tex- 
ture that admits of easy finishing. Light of color, it 
ranges from gray to almost white. The two woods, 
curly and straight grain, usually differ in color tone, 
the former being inclined to a cold gray and the latter 
usually a warmer tone of gray or gold. In either 
case a primer of white shellac is the practice, 
and while in some cases one coat suffices, as many as 
four may be given, depending upon the character of 
the job. It is finished with pale copal varnish. The 
shellac alters the color of maple less than any other 
liquid we can apply, and the fewer coats given the 
nearer the color will remain to the natural. One coat 
of copal varnish, even the very palest, will add some 
color to the wood, after the priming coat, and the 
more varnish the more color, though this is not always 
an objection, as the color thus produced is always of 
a very pleasing golden glow. Maple flooring requires 
sufficient coats of varnish to protect it from the wear 
incident to such surfaces. Furniture may do with 
less, as the wear is very little. The varnish should be 
allowed plenty of time for drying, and if you expect 
to produce a fine piece of maple finish do not hurry 
the work. The dark varnishes are the quicker drying, 
so that you are barred from using them, using the 
slower and paler ones. Damar varnish is nearly white, 
but it is too soft for this kind of work. It is impos- 
sible to rub it. 

Maple should be finished with a full gloss, as this 
wood appears lifeless when rubbed to a dull surface. 
The work should come to the finisher perfectly smooth, 
and he should see that every speck of dust is removed 
from it before beginning the surfacing. Maple is 
rarely stained, but some like the delicate green tint 
given to it by the application of copperas water. Al- 
low four days for the drying of a coat of varnish, and 



42 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

five days is better for the last coat, which may be 
rubbed with flour pumicestone and water, using a piece 
of felt for the rubber; on this rubbed surface apply 
the gloss coat of varnish. If a dead finish is desired, 
then follow the rubbing down with rottonstone pow- 
der and water, using a felt rubber. 

Mahogany. — This wood requires paste filler, and 
care in the filling is required in order not to obscure 
the beauty of the figures. Fill the wood level full, so 
that there will be formed a perfect foundation for 
the subsequent coats of varnish. Having filled and 
smoothed the surface, apply a coat of shellac, which 
in turn is made smooth with fine sandpaper. Then 
give it another coat of shellac, rub down, and finish 
with two or three coats of copal varnish. 

Mahogany is a rather spongy wood, and has much 
raised grain, a sort of fuzz, which causes some cloudi- 
ness in the filling. In some instances this fuzz runs in 
opposite directions, adding to the difficulty in both the 
working and in the finishing. These soft fuzzy places 
should be shellacked after the application of the water 
stain, and not before ; the shellac should be quite thin. 
Then it is ready for the filler. The shellac forms a 
glaze over the rough places and so prevents the filler 
from lodging there. 

An expert gives the following as his method of fin- 
ishing mahogany: First sandpaper the wood until it 
is perfectly smooth, dust off, then apply a stain made 
from water-soluble Bismarck brown. Let this dry, 
then apply a coat of thin shellac — two pounds to the 
gallon. This lays the fiber of the wood, but does not 
interfere with the filling of the wood. When dry and 
hard sandpaper lightly and dust off. Then apply 
mahogany paste filler; thence proceed as directed for 
paste filling. Then apply a coat of shellac and the 



WOOD FILLING 43 

varnish coats ; the shellac may be dispensed with if so 
desired. 

Usually it is best not to stain mahogany very dark, 
for its natural color is rather light, much like that of 
Spanish cedar or cigar box wood; yet a little stain 
certainly does improve the wood by making the color- 
ing more uniform than it is in the natural. If the 
wood is of an inferior quality it is better to use a dark 
stain, A black filler, by making a black pore, shows 
up the finer markings of the wood. 

Fine mahogany is a study in itself. Its markings 
are so delicate and its shades so rich and varied that 
special care is required in the development of all its 
beauty. 

If an old mahogany appearance is desired it may 
be obtained with solution of bichromate of potash. 
If a richer color is wanted, then use aniline stain that 
is both water and spirit soluble. This may be applied 
to the natural wood, or after the filler. Sandpaper 
smooth and apply a coat of shellac. This will bleed 
the stain again, which in turn will cover the marks 
of the sandpaper and prevent the oil of the varnish 
from entering the wood; oil will injure the wood by 
darkening it. Piano finishers get the best results in 
finishing mahogany, and they never allow oil to get to 
the bare wood. But some finishers, who are not afraid 
of the oil, add about forty per cent of turpentine to it, 
with a little good japan drier, this carrying the oil 
down into the pores of the wood, so that it affects the 
color of the surface very little, they claim. But it is 
best to omit oil on this wood, and even shellac can be 
dispensed with, for it is often a source of trouble in 
the finish. For instance, greening of the finish has 
been traced to the shellac, which likely has carried 
some water with it, thus affecting the varnish coat. 



44 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

For further particulars regarding mahogany finishing 
see the subject of piano finishing, in another part of 
this work. 

Oak. — An open-grained wood, requiring paste filler. 
The work should be sandpapered smooth before the 
finishing is begun. The wood is finished in more ways 
than any other wood used by woodworkers. The prin- 
cipal finishes are natural, light antique, dark antique, 
golden, in various shades, fumed, Flemish, weathered, 
Antwerp, green weathered, cathedral, brown, and Mis- 
sion. In addition there have been numerous colored 
finishes, ranging from blood red to almost black. But 
there is this characteristic in oak, that no matter what 
the finish may be, there is no disguising the wood; it 
always stands out as oak. This cannot be said of any 
other wood, we believe. 

A good paste filler for natural finish can be made 
from the formula given for oak under the head of 
'Tillers for the Various Woods." See item Oak. 

A finisher tells us that his practice is to always stain 
oak for the golden effect before applying anything else. 
This should stand from three to twelve hours, the 
latter preferably. The stain should be very thin, and 
it will then run into the pores of the wood, where it 
will be absorbed, none of it lying dead at the bottom. 
Don't wipe the stain off, but let it dry there. Then 
the filler should be applied. As the only purpose of 
the filler is to fill the pores of the wood, it need not be 
heavy; ten pounds of paste to the gallon of turpentine 
or benzine will do. Color it with the best drop black, 
in oil. Spread it over the stained work, and let it 
remain until right for wiping off; this will remove 
surplus stain and bring out the flakes of the wood, if 
quarter-sawed, as clear as though shellacked. On 
rough straight-grained wood it will not show cloudy. 



WOOD FILLING 45 

smeary effects, as may too often be seen on this class 
of work. 

Fumed Oak.— The successful fuming of a wood 
will depend upon its content of tannin or tannic acid; 
without this no wood can be successfully treated to 
give the fumed appearance, excepting as an imitation, 
and which will be discussed further on. White oak 
gives the best results, both on account of its very light 
color, and owing to the fact that its tannin content is 
very high. Chestnut is equally rich in this chemical, 
but as a wood it is not as desirable as oak. 

Fuming has certain important features; it does not 
raise the grain of the wood, nor does it show the 
mottled effect that staining does under wax finish ; and 
wax finish is the best kind for this class of work ; it 
makes a uniform, even coloring.^ 

Fuming can be done either in a box or ordinary 
room, according to the size or number of the articles 
that are to be treated. In either case the enclosure 
must be air-tight. There must also be provision for 
observing the process, a pane of glass inserted in the 
box, and window in the side of a room. A good plan 
is to have a strip of the wood that is to be fumed in- 
serted in a slot, so that one end of it may be in the 
room, with the other end outside, and so arranged 
that it may be withdrawn from time to time, to note 
depth of color. No definite period of time can be 
given for the process, as it all depends upon the size 
of the box or room and strength of the ammonia used, 
together with the depth of color desired. An approxi- 

1 The original *'fumed" oak was finished with one or two coats 
of shellac, thoroughly waxed. This is still considered correct 
and is most widely used. But some, particularly architects, 
specify fumed oak to be finished one coat of shellac and three 
coats of varnish, rubbed with pumicestone and oil to an egg- 
shell gloss. 



46 J-HE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

mate period is somewhere between twenty-four and 
thirty=six hours. If you have the strip of wood ar- 
ranged for observation, as above described, you will 
not need the window. As the natural white or light- 
colored wood will continue to appear light even after 
it has been fumed, taking the dark fumed effect only 
after having been finished, it is well to wet the strip 
now and then with water, which will give a color 
about that of the wood when finished. Certainly the 
wet color shown thus will be as light as the finish can 
possibly be. 

Before placing an object in an enclosure for fuming 
make sure that all glue spots or specks of dust and dirt 
are removed, for all such objects, large or minute, will 
show unfumed spots. Also see that every part of an 
object is exposed to the action of the ammonia, that 
no part overlaps another part. Successful fuming 
comes only from the observance of cleanliness and 
smoothness of the wood, combined with proper am- 
monia and air-tight enclosure. Much depends upon 
the woodworker, who should be careful to get the 
wood properly assorted, so that each batch fumed 
will be as near alike as possible in grade and 
color. 

Fuming is done with strong ammonia, the 26 deg. 
kind being required. The stronger the ammonia the 
quicker and better will it do the work. For a room 
of two thousand cubic feet space one gallon of strong 
ammonia, placed around in shallow dishes, will do 
the work. Observe this proportion for smaller spaces. 
Ordinary fuming may be done in about twelve hours, 
but such dark finishes as Flemish will require a much 
longer time. And there is a patented process which 
does the fuming in six hours, anhydrous or ammonia 
gas being applied direct into the fuming place. Where 
much fuming is done it is economical to use the am- 



WOOD FILLING 47 

monia gas, instead of liquid ammonia. This gas is 
used by ice-makers and by refrigerating plants in gen- 
eral. It is a liquid gas, compressed in the cylinders. 
There is also a kiln made for the special use of furni- 
ture making plants, designed for using this gas. 

After completion of the fuming process open up 
the room or box and remove the fumed articles. The 
ammonia fumes will soon escape after you have opened 
the door and window. 

The following is a description of the fuming process 
given by an expert workman. It contains a few points 
not embodied in the foregoing account. 

"The first and most essential matter is to have the 
wood well selected, dressed and cleaned. The fuming 
box is made of wood, 10x30x10 dimensions. It has 
an outer and inner wall, with paper between. Also 
a window with double sash, which works on hinges; 
the inner sash is made to open inward, and the outer 
sash outward, and when both are shut the box is air- 
tight. A door is then placed at the end, something 
like the door of a refrigerator. On the inside a rack 
is constructed, to hold the wood that is to be fumed; 
wood in any form should be so placed that the fumes 
can get to every part. An iron drum capable of hold- 
ing ten gallons of the highest grade ammonia is at- 
tached to the outside of the fuming box, at about the 
middle, and a pipe of two inches diameter runs from 
the top of the drum into the fuming box. The fumes 
passing through this pipe into the box are regulated 
by a valve. For a light shading the object being fumed 
is allowed an exposure of eighteen hours, and for a 
darker fuming two to four hours' additional exposure 
is allowed. In the latter case, when the object is re- 
moved and found too light, it is treated with a coat 
of liquid consisting of seventy-five per cent boiled lin- 
seed oil and twenty-five per cent turpentine ; this coat- 



48 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

ing is at once rubbed with a cloth until apparently dry. 
This darkens the color to the desired shade, and also 
serves as a finish. Wax may also be added, and rubbed 
to a finish. 

Imitation Fuming. — This is effected by applica- 
tions of liquid ammonia, full strength, or diluted, as 
to depth of color desired. The ammonia will raise the 
grain of the wood. The ammonia should be used only 
in the open, or where there is sufThcient ventilation to 
carry off the fumes. Coat the surface quickly and 
evenly, being careful that one part does not dry be- 
fore its adjoining part is done, which would form 
laps. It is best, as a rule, not to use too strong an 
ammonia, but to dilute it, more or less, for this will 
make the operation easier and less liable to make bad 
work. A chair, for instance, to coat w^hich it is diffi- 
cult to keep the ammonia from running on to another 
part; we find this difficulty, too, with water stains. 

Imitation fuming may also be done with water 
stains, a few formulas following: 

Boil an ounce of catechu (Gambier) in one quart 
of water, strain it, and apply hot to the wood. When 
dry brush the surface over with a solution of one 
ounce of bichromate of potash solution, made with one 
and one-half ounces of water. Should the color not 
prove deep enough add another coating. 

A solution of iron filings or nails immersed in strong 
vinegar or acetic acid until enough of the iron has 
been corroded off to form an inky liquid will give a 
good imitation, but the solution must be thinned out, 
and several coats of it be applied, or as many as may be 
required to give the required depth of tone. This stain 
gives a silvery appearance to the wood, if the wood 
contains tannin. 

Ivory drop black, ground in japan and thinned down 
with turpentine, is sometimes used to get a fumed ef- 



WOOD FILLING 49 

feet. It does not raise the grain of the wood, and it 
should be wiped off with a cloth. 

Or take burnt umber, ground in oil, and darken it a 
Httle with lampblack, in oil, then reduce the mass to a 
brown with zinc white, in oil. Thin it out with a mix- 
ture of equal parts of brown japan and turpentine, 
making a thin stain, which is to be applied freely to 
the wood. When it has set wipe off the surplus and 
fill with uncolored paste filler. Remove surplus filler 
and finish with wax. This stain does not raise the 
grain of the wood. 

A green fumed effect may be obtained by using 
the formula given for the second method, with cutch, 
etc. (the catechu-potash solution formula). Add to 
the potash solution a little soluble Prussian blue, just 
enough to give it a tinge of green. 

An effect known as the antique, but similar to the 
fumed method, is made by spreading fresh burnt lime 
paste on the wood; this is very caustic and burns the 
wood, thus coloring it to look like ammonia-fumed 
work. When the lime paste has dried remove it. All 
darkening of oak may be said to be imitation of fum- 
ing, and there are many ways for achieving this re- 
sult. Potash solutions of varying strength may be 
used, and which will impart colors ranging from light 
brown to near black. In full strength it gives a very 
dark red, a deeper tone than that made with arnmonia. 

To give cherry or birch a reddish tone apply am- 
monia solution first, and follow with a potash solution. 

To imitate oak on ash, elm, alder, box, chestnut, 
maple, yew, or sycamore, apply acetate of iron, or 
copper nitrate. The two solutions may also be used 
by mixing together, producing another effect. All 
such solutions must be used when cold. 

Rosewood. — This wood has a coarse grain and 
needs paste filler. The filler should be stained to match' 



50 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

the wood, and two coats of filler are better than one 
coat. The finishing is the same as that given to ma- 
hogany, which see. A filler may be made as follows : 
To ten pounds of natural paste filler add eight ounces 
of burnt sienna, two ounces of rose pink or rose lake, 
and a half ounce of drop black, all these pigments 
ground in oil. If rose lake is used diminish the 
amount, as it is very much stronger in coloring power 
than the pink. Stain over this filler with aniline blue 
over a crimson, orange, or yellow stain. Any mahog- 
any stain will do on rosewood, but several coats will 
be necessary to obtain the required depth of color. On 
such a deep color markings may be made with a pencil, 
using black ; use a soft hair pencil. Imitation feather 
work may be done with a small sponge, a feather, a 
comb, and a coarse graining comb of rubber, and a 
small bristle pencil. 

There are many rosewood stain formulas, and some 
of these are grouped under the head of staining. The 
wood has an oily gum, which exudes even after the 
finishing has been done, and this mars the surface with 
minute pit marks. The wood should be very carefully 
prepared before beginning its finishing. It is more 
difficult to work than mahogany, having a coarser 
grain. 

Redwood. — ^Brush paste filler well into the wood, 
and in about twenty minutes rub off in the usual way. 
After standing twenty- four hours rub smooth with 
fine sandpaper, dust off, and apply a coat of thin shel- 
lac; when dry sandpaper with fine paper, and give it 
another coat of shellac. Now it is ready for from two 
to five coats of best polishing varnish, according to 
quality of finish desired. This is for a first-class job. 
Rub the last coat with flour pumicestone and water 
after the job has stood two or three days to dry hard. 
Then in twenty-four hours it may be rubbed with 



WOOD FILLING 51 

powdered rottenstone and water, after which wash off 
with clear water, wipe dry, using a chamois; then 
when it has become thoroughly dry it may be rubbed 
with sweet oil and then be cleaned up with a rag damp- 
ened with alcohol. This process with the alcohol is 
known as "spiriting off," a work that must be done 
with extreme care, else the alcohol will injure the 
surface of the varnish. 

A cheaper finish may be obtained by simply shellack- 
ing the wood and giving it one or two coats of copal 
varnish, rubbing the last coat with moss or hair to 
remove the gloss. 

Red Gum. — This wood has a beautiful figure, and 
when it is finished mahogany-color it is, perhaps, hand- 
somer than the wood it is made to imitate. It is more 
durable than mahogany and easier to work. The beau- 
tiful figures in mahogany mean trouble for the finish, 
and the more figure the more danger of checking. It 
is not so with gum, for while its figures are often as 
beautiful as crotch mahogany, the wood is not liable 
to check on that account. 

Gum may be finished natural, and so finished it is 
still Ycry fine. But staining does not diminish the 
outstanding beauty of its markings. In this respect it 
is much like oak. It does not have to be filled, but 
when done in mahogany color it should be primxd 
with shellac. When mahoganizing the wood get the 
genuine color of mahogany, which leans toward the 
saffron, rather than the red tone. Mahogany powders 
come in red and brown, and a blending of the two will 
give a very good mahogany color for this purpose. 
Take ten parts brown and one part red and dissolve in 
water. But there are other colors for finishing gum. 
A clear brown does well, the color not being intended 
to look like walnut, though a walnut color will give 
a nice color, too. For the latter purpose use walnut- 



52 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

brown powder or walnut crystals, dissolved in water. 

In general the treatment of gum is the same as for 
birch, which see. But there remain a few more words 
on the subject. There is interior trim, which demands 
a different procedure than furniture. In the first 
place, it should be managed by the wood-worker prop- 
erly. If the trim is to go against damp plaster the 
back of the wood should be soaked with linseed oil, to 
prevent moisture from entering. Then blunt, not 
pointed, nails should be used for driving fast the trim ; 
the former will simply crush the fiber before it, and the 
latter will act as a wedge and split the wood. And 
where allowable, screws are better than pointed nails. 

The natural finish for red gum calls for a thin coat 
of white shellac, finishing with two coats of a good 
quality copal varnish. Or, if it is to be stained, apply 
the stain before the shellac and wipe off lightly before 
the stain sets. Then the coat of white shellac and two 
coats of varnish. As previously stated, gum needs no 
filler, and painters, not knowing this, will often do the 
filling, and this destroys the fine figure of the wood. 
Red gum lends itself admirably to wax finish, dull, or 
to oil finish, rubbed. We speak particularly of the 
figured red gum. But all the wood is handsome. Any 
of these stains may be used with satisfaction : Light 
and dark mahogany, black American walnut, French 
and Italian walnut, Circassian w^alnut, Flemish brown, 
Forest green. Mission, Dutch brown, and Silver gray. 

There is also quartered red gum, with a peculiar 
grain that, when stained mahogany, shows the change- 
able color tones in imitation of mahogany. Either 
walnut or mahogany stain will give very pleasing 
color effects. Do not apply the stain too heavy, so as 
to cloud the figures, but just enough to show the fine 
grain of the wood. If wax finish is desired, give it 
one coat of white wax and when dry sandpaper and 



WOOD FILLING 53 

apply the prepared wax. For walnut finish use this 
formula: 

1^ oz. walnut crystals 
J4 oz. blue-black nigrosiue 
Mix with two gallons of water. 

If a lighter stain is preferred reduce this stain one- 
half with water. Finish with two coats of white shel- 
lac, which sandpaper and wax. 

For an eggshell gloss apply two coats of white shel- 
lac, two coats of clear rubbing varnish, and two of 
polishing varnish. Let each coat dry, rubbing down 
with fine steel wool between coats; rub the last coat 
with fine pumicestone and oil. 

Inasmuch as public buildings are subject to hard 
usage of the woodwork it is well to not use heavy- 
bodied varnishes on the finish. Shellac and wax finish 
are probably better, at least from this standpoint ; they 
will not crack or show scratches readily, and the finish 
is more readily kept in repair. A finish dull-rubbed 
with oil and pumicestone powder is the best for the 
public and private building. 

Sycamore. — The plain sycamore wood is very at- 
tractive, but the quarter-sawed is even more so. 
Neither should be stained, but should be finished nat- 
ural. Use very thin shellac, and either white or orange 
shellac, according to whether you wish it natural finish 
or slightly stained. 

Walnut. — This wood requires filling, but before 
filling a stain must be applied. Also there is often 
sappy places that must first be touched up with the 
stain, after which the whole surface may be stained ; 
the latter will remove a part of the touch-up stain, 
and blend it in with the whole. Touching-up is done 
with a fine camel hair brush. Use water stain. Wal- 
nut does not become so fuzzy as mahogany on being 
treated with water stain, yet there will be some fuzz, 



54 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

and this should be sponged off, dried, and the fuzz 
sandpapered, as in the case of mahogany. Then the 
staining follows. In the furniture factory this spong- 
ing and sandpapering should be done in the cabinet de- 
partment, because it will save on cost of production; 
for if the article be done perfectly smooth in the wood- 
working room the work will all be undone if sent to 
the finishing room to be sponged and sandpapered. 
Stock that does not need sponging before staining 
should be sandpapered afterwards and before filling. 
For the finest grade of work apply a thin coat of shel- 
lac — one pound of gum to the gallon of alcohol — be- 
fore sandpapering; this will hold the fuzz so that the 
sandpaper can cut it off, and without going deep 
enough to give the surface a faded look. Let the stain 
have ample time for drying before applying the shellac, 
or the fibers of the wood will shrink after the filling, 
and leave pores unfilled. 

There are several sorts of filler for walnut. Here is 
one that does not discolor the wood very much, and 
that produces the finest finish; at the same time it is 
a very simple one. Take equal parts of boiled oil, 
turpentine and japan and mix with rye or wheat flour, 
colored a trifle with burnt umber; run it through a 
hand mill. Another formula reads as follows: Mix 
together equal parts of black japan, brown japan, and 
raw or boiled linseed oil; to one gallon of this liquid 
add one pint of turpentine. Add to this combined 
liquid enough floated silica and Vandyke brown--at 
the rate of one part Vandyke brown to six parts silica, 
to form a dough. As it is desirable to have a very 
dark pore in this wood it may be well to add enough 
drop black to make it darker; but this is a matter 
of choice, as some do not like too dark a pore. If 
you wish to make walnut dark, do not try to produce 
the effect by adding more of the coloring matter you 



WOOD FILLING 55 

are using to your stain. That will overload the stain 
and produce a muddled effect, clouding the fine marks 
of the wood. Years ago, when walnut was the su- 
preme cabinet wood, it was darkened to the point of 
being ebony. 

Some finishers urge that when an oil stain is used 
with a paste filler it is doing more than is necessary, 
saying further that an oil stain fills sufficiently itself, 
in addition to staining. Yet others practice the reverse 
of this method. One particular objection to the oil- 
stain method is that when you come to rub off the 
filler some of the stain will come with it, leaving the 
result about what it would have been without the stain. 
The walnut paste filler gives a more natural wood 
appearance than where oil or water stain is also used. 
Moreover, the dropping of the staining work decreases 
cost of production by that much. 

When an oil stain is used with a paste filler it is a 
little darker than when the filler is used alone. This 
is well enough where the demand is for rather light 
walnut finish, as it is at this writing, for the dark 
brown of the stain is not satisfactory. However, 
either the oil stain should be used without the filler, 
or the filler without the stain. There are two kinds 
of walnut paste fillers, the one intended solely for 
filling the pores, and the combination of stain and fill- 
er. The former should contain no liquid coloring 
matter nor any coloring matter that is soluble in oil. 
Use either drop black or Vandyke brown, or the two 
combined, ground in either oil or japan. The filler 
base should be finely pulverized silica. To stain the 
combination filler when a brown tone is desired, use 
asphaltum of black japan to color the liquid, which 
will stain the wood, the black and brown pigments be- 
ing used to color the silica ; the amount of color to be 
used will depend upon the depth of color desired to 



56 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

show in the pores. Combined stain and filler does best 
on walnut having a positive figure. Fine veneering 
should not be stained, but be filled with a filler having 
color in the pigment only. 

A filler that will give a little color to the wood in 
addition to darkening the pore : Mix together two 
parts of raw linseed oil, one part of brown japan, and 
one part of black japan; to a gallon of this add one- 
half pint of turpentine. The latter will render thor- 
ough admixture of the liquids easier and more com- 
plete. Then add two parts of fine silica and one part 
of Vandyke brown to form a dough ; thin down for use. 

The following formula gives a good brown stain : 
Walnut crystals one-half ounce, dissolved in one quart 
of water. If it is desired to get a darker brown with 
this stain, use this formula : Walnut crystals one 
ounce, nigrosine (ebony powder), soluble in water one 
quart. This will darken the brown shade without 
increasing the depth of color. And the proportions 
may be varied to give any desired shade of brown. 

A filler containing japan will soon become hard, 
hence only sufficient should be made at a time for the 
work in hand, though all filler should be made at least 
a day in advance. When filler is too long made it is 
very difficult to work, if at all workable. Make the 
filler into a stiff dough, and when wanted for use re- 
duce what you need with benzine or turpentine. 

If your filler does not dry as quickly as it should 
do not add more japan to it, but add just a little more 
silica; do not add too much, for that would weaken 
the mass. If you are using some old filler that works 
too hard try this plan : Stir into raw linseed oil silica 
and Vandyke brown, in the same proportions as used 
in the filler formula, to form a dough ; add enough of 
this to the old paste filler to make it work easy. By 



WOOD FILLING S7 

dough is meant a condition like that of the baker's un- 
baked loaf, 

A filler does not need to be made so stiff as to be 
hard-working, for it is certain that it may be in a con- 
dition that will admit of easy rubbing, without leaving 
the pores unfilled. Filler that is too stiff is likely to 
pull out of the pores. It is quite possible to make a 
filler that will rub easily two hours after application 
and dry hard within twenty-four hours. 

White Pine. — This wood is soft and close-grained. 
White shellac affords a good first-coater, sealing the 
pores or grain of the wood, and not greatly altering 
its natural color. But when the wood is rather uneven 
of color it is better to add some coloring to the first 
coat, just enough to make the surface uniform. Some- 
times this wood is treated with stain, and often it acts 
badly, due to the fact, as some say, that the wood con- 
tains tannin, and that the same is true of yellow pine. 
However, only very light colored stain is ever thus 
affected. 

Knots that are objectionable may be treated w^ith 
this bleach : 

Chloride of lime 17%. oz. 

Soda crystals 2 oz. 

Water 10^ pts. 

Lay this paste on the knot and let it remain there 
for a few hours; then remove it, and if not sufficiently 
bleached repeat the operation. Or if bleached enough, 
neutralize with acid. 

Oil as a finish on white pine does not do well, the 
effect being a cloudiness and discoloration in time. If 
the wood should be desired for exterior use, exposed 
to the weather, then oil would be useful, no doubt; it 
has been suggested by a finisher that two parts oil and 



58 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

one part turpentine would be better than all oil. But 
shellac is the most satisfactory primer and surfacer 
of all. It keeps back any sap or rosin from coming 
through, except in extreme cases, and especially when 
a light stain is used. Two coats are best, each rubbed 
down with fine sandpaper, followed by two or more 
coats of pale finishing varnish. 

The surface of this wood must be made smooth and 
free from all blemishes, all pencil or other marks care- 
fully removed. The more perfect the surface the finer 
the job. And it is better to make the wood smooth with 
the plane than with sandpaper, which will cause 
scratches, no matter how well done. 

Hard Pine. — This wood is variously named, ac- 
cording to its source; some of its names are Norway 
pine, Georgia pine, red pine. Southern pine, etc., as 
well as hard pine. But the pine is not always a hard 
pine; as a wood it is classed among the soft woods. 
The dark, rich red pine, that we call hard pine, is 
hard mostly, according to its distribution of hard sap 
or rosin; when the tree has been bled of all its rosin 
the w^ood is not so hard. Its color ranges from light 
sapwood to an orange-colored heart. Hence the wood 
p. is a rather difficult one to finish. Its surface may con- 
\ tain soft places that will absorb like a sponge, and at 
\ the same time have parts so hard as to repel stains and 
filler or surfacer. Yet It is a "soft wood." 

This wood is largely used in house construction, and 
this includes trim, flooring, etc. It is seldom finished 
with paint. It does not take paint well, besides which 
it has a good figure and growth or grain, and also 
good color, hence finishes very well with varnish, etc. 
Sometimes the finish is simply brown japan, well 
rubbed into the wood, two or more coats, each coat 
being rubbed off with a cloth, to show the grain, and 
leaving color in the wood. Another and similar 



WOOD FILLING 59 

method is to apply the japan and ruti off, as described, 
tthen to apply a coat of the japan and let it go at that. 
Such a finish has nothing to recommend it. Again, 
the japan may be applied to the bare wood and is done. 

Painters often finish hard pine with liquid filler and 
hard-oil finish. School furniture made of this wood 
is sometimes sized with glue, on which a coat of var- 
nish is applied, followed by another coat of glue, and 
finally a coat of cheap copal varnish. Often the furni- 
ture gets but a coat of glue and one of cheap varnish. 
Orange shellac gives some color to the wood, if the 
wood be deficient in that respect, as some sorts are, 
and also has better body than the white shellac, hence 
is to be preferred where economy is an object. 

It is rather difficult to stain this wood without hid- 
ing its grain. The use of aniline stains is not advised. 
An architect wanted a black walnut finish on hard 
pine; it was discovered that Vandyke brown did not 
give the desired color, so black was added to it and 
the result was satisfactory, a very dark walnut color. 
The wood must be perfectly dry when you are about 
to stain it, and the room should be warm, about 72 
deg. If the wood is to go against a cold or damp wall, 
paint the back of it two coats at least. This may pre- 
vent mildew, which comes from dampness. 

If the room you have to stain and finish shows 
several kinds of wood, or if the one wood is uneven 
of color, with sap and streak, apply a thin coat of 
shellac, and stain over that, using oil stain. 

To do a job of hard pine proceed as follows : Clean 
ofif all marks, dirt, etc., and sandpaper smooth, dust 
off and apply a coat of white shellac. Right here an«- 
other workman says that before the vshellac is applied 
there should be given a very light coat of light paste 
filler. It may be explained that there are usually some 
soft or open parts that thin paste filler would make 



60 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

more solid, and hence the use thereof is advised. In 
rubbing off, the filler that lies on the hard parts will 
come off entirely, but that over the soft parts will be 
pushed into the wood, the rest being removed in the 
rubbing. 

After the surfacing has dried, fill all nail holes, etc., 
with putty made from oil, white lead and dry whiting, 
with a little ocher to color it. Then rub off lightly 
with fine sandpaper and apply a coat of shellac. Fin- 
ish with a good grade of pale finishing varnish, reduced 
a little with turpentine. But use your own judgment 
about that. In forty-eight hours rub lightly with oo 
sandpaper or steel wool of corresponding fineness, or 
even with curled hair ; dust oft', and apply another coat 
of the pale finishing varnish, but unthinned. If a 
rubbed finish is desired, or a polish, give three coats 
of varnish, rubbing off the gloss of the last coat with 
flour pumicestone and oil or water, and then polish it. 

Good results can be secured from the following 
method : Use a stain made from the necessary pig- 
ments, with sufficient driers, and benzine or turpen- 
tine thinners. Let the stain stand a while after appli- 
cation, then wipe off clean. Should this not give the 
desired color, glaze over it with the color you wish, 
using a thin glaze. The glaze must be carefully ap- 
plied and blended, to secure a uniform coating, and 
it must, of course, be transparent. The point in stain- 
ing is to get the color effect desired, without impairing 
the natural beauty of the wood. 

Whitewood. — All white or very light colored 
woods are more or less discolored by linseed oil. The 
best primer and surfacer is white shellac, though some 
finishers claim that white Damar varnish is better, as 
it is whiter. But it is a very soft gum varnish, and 
though shellac goes on top, yet it is never safe to have 
a soft coating under a harder one. The shellac when 



WOOD FILLING 61 

dry must be well sandpapered with fine paper, and 
then anctther coat be given; these two coats may be 
applied in one day, on hurried work, but it is better 
to allow more time than that, two days at least. 
Usually four coats are applied, the last coat rubbed 
down with flour pumicestone and water, rubbing very 
lightly. Such a finish gives a level, smooth, solid and 
deep-appearing effect. 



FINISHINCx WESTERN WOODS 

The following are brief specifications for finishing 
Douglas fir and other Western woods. 

For natural finish, dull, two coats of raw linseed oil, 
well rubbed in. Flat, one coat of raw linseed oil, one 
coat of white shellac, and one coat of flat varnish. 
Gloss, one coat raw linseed oil, one coat white shellac, 
and two coats of bright hard varnish. Wax, one coat 
of raw linseed oil, two coats of prepared wax, well 
rubbed in with cloth, or weighted brush, for floors. 

If to be stained, then substitute the stain for the oil 
coats given above. Do not use orange shellac on nat- 
ural shade or light stain finishes. 

Many fine effects may be obtained by using oil 
stains, as they bring out the grain of the wood more 
prominently. Apply a coat of penetrating stain with 
a soft brush, then wipe it off when set, using a soft 
rag. It may be necessary to go over the work with a 
little color to tone down to match the darker parts. 
After drying for twelve hours apply one coat of white 
shellac, for light stains, and orange for darker stains. 
When dry rub down with fine steel wool, dust off and 
apply a coat of rubbing varnish. Then another coat 
of rubbing. The finishing coat of rubbing or polish- 
ing varnish may be applied when the second coat is dry, 
and when hard enough it should be rubbed with curled 
hair. 

For a gloss finish, after forty-eight hours rub with 
pulverized pumicestone and oil, using a felt pad. For 
polish finish rub with powdered pumicestone, oil, and 
felt pad, and polish with rottenstone and oil. The 

62 



FINISHING WESTERN WOODS 63 

work should be done in a dry atmosphere and at a 
temperature of about 70 deg. F. Avoid over-staining. 

The best resuhs for red cedar may be obtained by 
the following method : Apply one coat of good clear 
liquid filler, finishing with two or three coats of var- 
nish. Rub down with fine steel wool between each 
coat, and the last coat of varnish can be polished with 
rottenstone and oil if desired. Particular care should 
be taken with cedar, as it is easily scratched. 

To finish outside doors, porch panels, and outside 
work that is to be done with varnish, and which work 
is exposed to the weather, the following method is ad- 
vised : Make the surfaces smooth, then apply a heavy 
coat of boiled linseed oil which contains a good drying 
agent. Allow this to thoroughly saturate the wood; 
it is intended to .prevent absorption of oil from the 
varnish. After the oil has dried sufficiently apply 
two coats of exterior varnish, rubbing between each 
coat, polishing the last coat with pumicestone and oil. 
If to be stained, apply stain first. % 

Some Woodfinishing Notes 

Weathered oak, mission oak, and fumed oak are 
sometimes classed under the same head. The first is 
a stained wood, while the other two are fumed, and 
then finished with either lacquer or shellac, with wax 
finish. Early English oak is similar in type to weath- 
ered oak, but it does not have to be filled; weathered 
oak is simply stained and shellacked or waxed. Some 
shellac before filling, and then give it a dull-rub finish. 

There are some thirty different shades of weathered 
oak, and fifty shades of early English oak, varying 
from bright umber to almost green. The best results 
for early English oak may be produced by first stain- 
ing, and then applying a very thin coat of white shel- 



64 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

lac; then fill, shellac, and finall}^ varnish and rub to a 
dull finish. Some do not put on any varnish, but sim- 
ply apply two or three coats of shellac, so as to avoid 
much rubbing. 

Butler oak at first meant a gray-brown, but it has 
no standard color now, as everybody makes his own 
color, running from a gray-brown to a red, or even 
to a green cast. 

Jacobean finish is much after the old sixteenth cen- 
tury finish, which was made by staining wnth a reddish- 
brown with a slight purple tone; it was allowed to 
stand about a half hour, then it had its high-lights 
wiped out with a rag, to give the appearance of hav- 
ing been worn or rubbed off from years of use; this 
effect was particularly shown around doorknobs, 
handles, escutcheons, etc., but that has been done away 
with. The process has been cheapened by doing away 
with all the rubbing that was required, and making 
the finish uniform and coating it over with shellac and 
wax, or two coats of shellac and no wax. In cheaper 
grades of furniture it is brownish, much of an umber 
cast, and it is being finished without a filler. 

The Adam brown mahogany stain is one with a 
brown cast and a slightly red undertone. 

Kaiser gray and silver gray differ only in the cast. 
Kaiser gray has a blue cast, while silver gray has a 
green cast. The latter is made by first staining the 
wood and then, if a fine flake is desired, in either 
Kaiser or silver gray, after staining it, first apply a 
very thin coat of white shellac, then fill it after the 
shellac is dry, with a white filler. If you wish a gray 
overcast throughout first stain and then fill over the 
stain. 

Kaiser gray might properly be called a dark shade 
of silver gray; they both may be made from the same 
materials, with a stronger solution for the former. 



FINISHING WESTERN WOODS 65 

There are many different shades of each. With the 
following formula it is easy to prepare any shade of 
gray that may be desired. Mix together in powder 
form one and one-half ounces of sulphate of iron, 
four and one-half ounces of sulphate of soda, and 
three-quarters ounce of jet black Nigrosine. Dissolve 
in six quarts of hot water; apply and when dry apply 
a coat of white shellac. For a durable finish, one not 
affected by a damp climate, finish with a thin coat of 
white shellac and two or three coats of banana oil. 
Then wax in the usual way, having added to the wax 
some zinc white, and clean up so that the white wax 
shows in the pores only. 

Many finishers fill the surface of mahogany with 
oil stain; better results can be had by first applying 
a very thin coat of shellac. It is important that the 
wood be perfectly dry, otherwise there can be no as- 
surance of a good finish. Mahogany filler should not 
be used the same as oak filler; benzine should not be 
used, as that will injure the color of the wood; it will 
bleach it at once, changing the color of the filler on 
the surface and in the pores of the wood; it injures 
red or any bright color. Where benzine has been 
used in connection with filling mahogany you will see 
its bad work by looking over the face of the wood; 
you will find the pores of the wood have turned gray 
or more pink; that is caused in almost every case by 
the use of benzine or by damp lumber, but mostly by 
benzine. 

Very much of the Circassian walnut that the people 
get to-day is simply gum. Or part of the furniture 
they buy for Circassian is gum. But very fine imita- 
tions can be made with gum. All gum wood, unless 
quartered, is not figured, so that in order to make a 
perfect imitation of the Circassian walnut the furni- 
ture maker uses a charcoal crayon to mark in the lines 



66 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

found in the Circassian wood, and after that he will 
paint them in with stain, or he will use both, and you 
will see both in some cases, though it will be rather 
difficult for the inexpert to discover the deception. 

Circassian walnut requires a stain that will not pen- 
etrate the wood, and hence it is necessary to use a very 
quick thinner, such as benzol, or varnish, or anything 
that will do what is required and not hide or cloud 
the markings of the wood. 

The finisher long ago learned that he could take 
furniture made of gum or maple and get the same 
result as with mahogany, by using the proper stain 
and handling it right. 

Western yellow pine is known throughout its range 
simply as pine or yellow pine, and in the lumber trade 
of the Northwest as Western pine. It is sometimes 
called Western soft pine or, less frequently, Oregon 
white pine. The terms used by the California lumber- 
man are "Western white pine" and "California white 
pine." 

That cloudy or mottled effect so objectionable in 
yellow pine stained with oil stain may be remedied 
by coating it with a mixture of one-third raw oil, two- 
thirds turpentine, and a little driers. Let it stand until 
next day, then scuff it with No. o sandpaper; after 
which apply the stain. That will give a fine surface. 
It is to be done on the bare wood, not on the stain 
already there. The idea is to get enough oil on to 
stop suction, and as little oil as will do this. Oil or 
water stain may be used over this surface. The water 
stain should not be applied until after forty-eight 
hours, and apply the oil-turpentine-driers mentioned 
above. 



FINISHING HARDWOOD FLOORS . 

The finishing of hardwood floors presents no prob- 
lem that is not met with in hardwood finishing in gen- 
eral, but there is one point not met with in other fin- 
ishing that should be mentioned here. The floor is to 
be walked on, and hence its finish requires more time 
for drying before being used than any other part of 
the house. There are fioor varnishes that can be 
walked on without damage within ten or twelve hours, 
say, over night. But this is not the point. The floor 
must have proper time from the filling; some people 
are so anxious to get into the new house that the floors 
are not given time for becoming sufflciently hard all 
through before being used. Even after a floor has 
been laid it should have time to "work and set," as 
the floor-layer will say. He adds that seven or eight 
days in a warm room will be sufficient time. But will 
the floor get that much time? In the meantime the 
floor must be covered to protect it from injury. A 
good floor will be scraped and sandpapered. A ma- 
chine is used for the purpose, using No. i ^ sandpaper 
for the first cutting, and finishing wnth No. oo paper, 
which gives the wood a sort of polish. First the ma- 
chine runs across the grain, then with the grain; this 
will leave about six inches around the sides that must 
be done with a hand scraper, finishing with sandpaper 
and block. Then the floor is cleaned off, the last sweep- 
ing being done with a broom having a flannel cloth 
tied over it, the latter slightly dampened with raw 
linseed oil, which will take up the dust left from the 

previous sweeping. 

(>7 



68 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

The clear grade of oak flooring should be filled with 
uncolored paste filler, or with a little oak color. Select 
and sap grades should have a light golden oak filler, 
and after the floor has been filled it should be gone over 
with a little burnt umber, to darken any light streaks. 
Thin the umber with turpentine. This w^ill make the 
select and sap grades look like clear grade, excepting 
that they will be slightly darker in color. In filling 
No. I-common grade, a dark golden oak filler should 
be used, and the light streaks should be darkened as 
previously described. If the floor-layer is a little care- 
ful in laying this grade fine results will follow. 

After filling the floor give it about twenty minutes 
to set, then rub oflf with burlap or tow, across the 
grain. Let the w^ork now stand for twent3^-four hours, 
then sandpaper smooth and apply a coat of surfacer, an 
article described in another part of this work. Some 
use copal varnish thinned with turpentine. Sandpaper 
again, and for a good job give it two coats of rubbing 
varnish, rubbing the first coat to remove the gloss, then 
rub the second coat with powdered pumicestone and 
water. Clean up, let the work dry, then apply wax 
or varnish, as desired. 

Wax Finish. — Take cheese-cloth and double it, and 
make into a bag, in which place some powdered wax 
and go over the floor with it. The wax will work 
evenly through the meshes of the cheese-cloth, prevent- 
ing too much wax in a place, and preventing any waste. 
Wax polish may be used in place of the dry if desired. 
This done, rub to a polish with a w^eighted brush, first 
across the grain of the wood, then with the grain. To 
get a good finishing gloss follow the weighted l,)rush 
rubbing with a piece of felt or carpet under the brush, 
going over the work with it. A second coating of wax 
may then be given, after the first coat has had an hour 
to dry. 



FINISHING HARDWOOD FLOORS 69 

Varnish Finish. — Varnish is, of course, a more 
expensive finish than wax, but it is more serviceable, 
giving a hard and yet elastic surface. The wood is 
paste-filled and two or three coats of varnish are ap- 
plied, each coat being rubbed with pumicestone powder 
and oil. That is for a first-class job; one or two coats 
of varnish are sometimes given. 

Finish for Hard Pine Floor. — Shellac finish is 
usually the best for a hard pine floor, as copal varnish 
does not w^ear well; it does better when applied over 
shellac. Some finishers say that neither shellac nor 
copal varnish should be used, but that the wood should 
be stained with a dark oil stain, wiped off, and then, 
when dry, have a coat of equal parts of raw oil and 
turpentine. This should be wiped off dry. First wipe 
across the grain of the wood, with the dark oil stain, 
the wiping taking the stain from the hard parts and 
putting it into the softer parts; finally wipe the surface 
dry with a dry clean cloth. Repeat this operation until 
the wood will take up no more. A hard pine floor 
treated this way will neither scratch nor wear off in 
spots, and it is easily renewed when that becomes neces- 
sary. Such a floor does not become slippery, and it 
grows more attractive with age, the color darkening 
and mellowing. 

If to be finished natural you will first apply a liquid 
filler, pale of color, or a coat of white shellac, follow- 
ing with copal varnish, pale, or wnth wax ; or two coats 
of shellac. 

There is some difference of opinion among experts 
respecting the use of a filler on wood before waxing; 
in its favor it may be said that where shellac has been 
used, with wax over it, w^hen you wish to clean the 
fl-oor and renew the finish it is easy to remove the wax 
with turpentine ; but if the wax is on the bare wood, as 
some prefer, it is a more difficult matter. When the 



70 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

wax has been washed off clear down to the shellac 
3^ou will have just as good a surface to wax on as 
when the floor was first done. 

Finishing Hardwood Floors. — Work upon the 
principle that for good wear apply as few co:its as 
possible. A floor laid with oak or other open-pore 
wood should be filled with paste filler; never use a 
liquid filler for this purpose. Finish with copal varnish 
or shellac, or with wax. Some finishers give the floor 
two coats of thin shellac and call the job done. Others 
will prefer two or more coats of good floor varnish. 
But a majority of finishers will vote for a wax finish, 
in some cases applied over the filler, but more com- 
monly after a thin coat of shellac has been applied over 
the paste filler. The prepared wax is applied with a 
weighted brush, and the polishing is done with the 
same tool, with felt or carpet under it. Beeswax itself 
is quite soft, so that the commercial waxes usually con- 
tain some harder wax, which admits of a better polish. 
Carnauba wax is used with ceresin or beeswax for floor 
polishes. 

Wax Floor Polish Formula. — ^Take three pounds 
each of ceresin and carnauba waxes, shred, and place 
in a suitable vessel; place this in another vessel con- 
taining hot water ; when melted add very gradually tur- 
pentine three gallons, stirring the mass frequently un- 
til perfectly uniform and with the consistency of vase- 
line. Then remove the vessel from the bath and pour 
into suitable containers for handy use. When per- 
fectly cold the wax should be like stiff butter. 

Polishing Hardwood Floors. — There are ma- 
chines for polishing floors that have been waxed. One 
of these has something of the appearance of a lawn 
mower, having a revolving brush at the front to 
distribute the wax solution as it drips from a vessel im- 
mediately above it. This is followed up by a series 



FINISHING HARDWOOD FLOORS 71 

of reciprocating brushes that do the polishing, and an- 
other arrangement consisting of two hinged boards, 
arranged in the form of a triangle ; this is worked over 
the floor, to and fro, by means of a long handle ; pro- 
vision is also made for clipping cloths on both boards, 
enabling one side to be used for distributing purposes, 
and the other for drying off and imparting a final 
gloss or polish. The tool used for small jobs is the 
weighted brush, made and sold for that purpose. A 
cheap, home-made device for the purpose may be made 
by screwing a number of scrubbing brushes to the 
bottom of a box, which may be weighted with bricks 
or other heavy objects, and pushed or pulled over the 
waxed floor. 

Waxing Old Floors. — An old floor offers difficul- 
ties of several kinds, such as open cracks between 
boards, which will have to be made good by means 
of strips of wood; open joins, showing nails, dirty 
woodwork, etc. The cracks and other openings must 
be filled and the dirt removed. If the floor is stained 
with dirt it will have to be scrubbed with sal soda water 
and soap until clean. Stains can be removed with a 
bleach such as has been described under another head- 
ing. When clean and dry apply a coating of raw lin- 
seed oil, or equal parts of oil and turpentine; then 
sprinkle sawdust freely over the floor and sweep it 
well about, to absorb the oil; follow with a weighted 
brush, which will smooth and brighten the floor. After 
being freed from all sawdust and oil it is waxed and 
polished. If a first-class job is desired pulverized 
pumicestone or steel wool is used instead of sawdust, 
especially on hard wood. 

Floor Wax Formulas. — i. A mixture composed 
of two-thirds melted wax and one-third turpentine. 

2. A dry wax compound for dancing floors may be 
made from fotir ounces each of spermaceti and paraiifin 



72 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

and eight ounces of talcum povvder, all worked to- 
gether and passed through a No. lo sieve. 

3. Powder twenty ounces of stearin, five ounces of 
yellow beeswax, and t^^'o ounces of hard white soap; 
mix and sift together. For lioof sprinkling. 

4. Yellow beeswax two pounds, raw linseed oil one 
pint, and turpentine one quart. Melt together the oil 
and wax and add the turpentine later. 

5. Shave fine one pound of white beeswax and boil 
with one ounce of pearlash in one quart of water. Stir 
until the wax melts and unites with the water. 

6. Dissolve one-half pound of potash in a saucepan, 
on the stove ; when water comes to a boil throw in one 
pound of finely shredded beeswax ; stir well until the 
wax melts. Let it then cool; if too thick add more 
water. Apply with a paint brush, as you would paint, 
and with the grain of the wood; when dry, rub to a 
polish with heavy brush. 

7. A cheap floor wax may be made from ceresin 
wax or purified ozokerite dissolved in kerosene oil on 
a water bath or on a hot stove-plate, but not close to the 
fire. 

8. Another wax for dancing floor. Melt in 63 deg. 
benzine as much paraffin wax as the liquid will take 
lip, then stir in talcum powder to form a fairly stift' 
paste; rub through a No. 10 sieve, then spread out 
thinly on trays, until the benzine evaporates. When 
the mass has become perfectly dry pulverize it and 
place it in tin cans with perforated tops, handy for 
sprinkling. 

Floor Waxing Notes. — The waxed and polished 
floor is dangerously slippery, but if desired the wax 
may be removed, and again waxed when needed. This 
has reference to dancing floors, or large room floors 
in private residences used for occasional dancing. This_ 



FINISHING HARDWOOD FLOORS 73 

js the special excellence of a waxed floor, it can be 
madenew at any time, and at little expense. 

It is difficult to shred wax with a knife, but by heat- 
ing the knife it is easy enough. Place the knife a mo- 
ment in hot water, but wipe it dry before using. 

The addition of from ten to twenty parts of rosin 
wall make the floor wax harder. Or add some of the 
harder waxes, such as carnauba or Japan wax, these 
being hard but not brittle. Paraffin wax alone is too 
brittle, though it may be added to other waxes. It 
does not work soft like beeswax, but is short and 
crumbly. Some add japan driers to harden wax. 

Floor wax may be colored, annatto being a good 
yellow coloring agent. 

The secret of success with wax lies in applying 
it thin and rubbing it a great deal. Beeswax particu- 
larly should be spread very thin, for if too heavy a 
coating is applied it will show the shoe marks. 

After applying the wax let it stand for an hour 
or so, in order to give the turpentine opportunity to 
evaporate. 

A fourteen-pound brush is about right for the wax 
polishing; a lighter one will also do. After rubbing 
with the weighted brush let the job stand until next 
day, then go over it with the weighted brush again, 
with carpet under it. 

Fresh made wax is better than one that has been 
made for some time and not covered close. The old 
wax is apt to be soft when upon the floor. 

Crack Fillers and Floor Putties 

Cracks in New Floors. — Melt two parts of com- 
mon glue in fourteen parts of water, and stir in four 
parts of plaster of Paris and two parts of dry pow- 



74 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

dered litharge. Prepare the glue by soaking in cold 
water until perfectly soft, then placing the vessel con- 
taining the glue and water on the stove until the water 
becomes hot enough to cause the glue to melt, then 
the other ingredients may be added. 

Large Floor Cracks. — Boil newspaper to a pulp, 
then add wheat flour paste to make a stiff mass. Or 
add to the pulp glue size and some calcined magnesia 
to form a paste; color if desired. Or powdered dry 
litharge one part, plaster of Paris two parts, glue one 
part, water eight parts, cement four parts, sawdust 
two parts, casein five parts, water thirty parts, am- 
monia three parts, and dry lime three parts. Soak the 
glue in the water, add the other ingredients, and mix 
with the liquids, adding the thirty parts of water last. 

Or make a putty with waterglass and whiting. 

To glue size add asbestos powder to form a paste. 

Mix one part of air-slaked lime, sifted, with two 
parts of rye flour, then add boiled oil to form a putty. 

Dissolve four ounces of glue in two quarts of water 
by boiling ; when done and allowed to cool, not beyond 
the warm point, however, stir in equal parts of sawdust 
and whiting to form a putty. 

Mix together common putty, a little varnish and 
driers, and coloring if desired. This will make a hard, 
quick drying putty. 

Paste wood filler makes a good crack filler; also a 
putty made from equal parts of whiting and white lead 
ground in oil, or whiting and dry white lead mixed 
with equal parts of turpentine, rubbing varnish and 
coach japan, with coloring if desired. 

Putties and Cements for Hardwoods. — A very 
hard cement for filling defective places in wood may be 
made by melting one ounce of common rosin and one 
ounce of beeswax in an iron or enameled pan, and 
w^hen melted stir in an ounce of any earth pigment that 



FINISHING HARDWOOD FLOORS 75 

will give the needed coloring, or color of the wood. 
This filler must be used fresh, while hot, for it will be- 
come like stone when cold. 

Melt one part of good cabinet glue in sixteen parts 
of hot water, and when melted and cool stir in some 
hardwood sawdust and some whiting, to form a putty. 

Make a putty of fresh pulverized lime one part, rye 
flour two parts, and raw linseed oil enough to form a 
putty. Or varnish may be used in place of oil. Color 
to suit the wood. 

Add together equal parts of red lead, white lead, 
litharge and chalk, all dry, and mix with raw linseed 
oil to form a putty. 

Cabinet makers' stopping or cement for wood is 
made as follows : Place a tablespoonful each of pul- 
verized shellac and rosin and a lump of beeswax the 
size of a walnut in a suitable vessel, which set on the 
stove and let it remain until contents fuse. If the ce- 
ment is intended for mahogany add a little Venetian 
red, for oak add 3^ellow ocher or raw sienna, with a lit- 
tle burnt umber for darker oak. For ebony or rose- 
wood add lampblack. Mix all w^ell together. This 
cement is an old one, known as beaumantique. It may 
be used in the liquid state or be made into sticks like 
sealing wax; for the latter make the cement into a 
dough and roll it out on a board and cut into sticks. 
To use, heat it with a candle and let it run onto the 
part you wish to cement or fill, then level it off with a 
chisel and make smooth with sandpaper. 

If you have nail holes or other places to fill defer 
it until after the second coat of shellac or varnish has 
been appHed. The idea is to have the true color of 
the finish to match with the putty. Usually it is best 
to make the putty a trifle darker than the wood or 
finish. 

In making putty for hardwoods or soft, whether the 



76 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

work is natural or stained, make white lead putty, 
as whiting does not give as clear a color as white lead 
does. Use dry white lead, mixed with boiled oil to 
form a stiff putty. 

Renovating Old Floors 

Cleaning a Natural Wood Floor. — Strew some 
w^hite sea sand over the floor and some potash solution, 
made from one pound of potash and one pint of water. 
Use a stiff brush and scrub the way of the grain of the 
wood. Or use hot water and a good brown soap, with 
vigorous scrubbing ; change the water often. Ink stains 
may be removed with oxalic acid or strong nitric acid. 

Coal Oil Stains. — Apply a strong, hot solution 
of oxalic acid, and follow with soap and scrub brush 
and hot water; change water often. 

Worn Maple Floor. — In course of time a maple 
floor will show signs of wear, appearing very unsightly 
in places of most use. If in very bad condition remove 
the soiled and worn spots with varnish remover, and 
when clean coat it with white shellac varnish. Such a 
floor should have attention and whenever there are 
signs of wear and accompanying dirt clean it and 
shellac it. 

Soiled Waxed Floor. — The floor is sticky and 
gray with dust. Take a handful of No. i steel wool, 
dip this into turpentine, and with it rub the floor care- 
fully, softening up the old stuff and with some cotton 
waste remove the same. Then give it a coat or two of 
wax and polish it. 

_To keep a waxed floor in good condition go over it 
once a week with a mixture of equal parts of turpentine, 
sweet oil and vinegar, using a soft cloth. Then polish 
it with a clean, soft cloth, or with it wrapped around a 
floor brush. 



FINISHING HARDWOOD FLOORS 11 

Renovating an Old Floor,— If the floor has been 
paste=filled and finished with wax or varnish the best 
thing to do is to get all the old stuff off down to the 
filler, with varnish remover, or with steel wool if that 
can be done. If you use varnish remover be sure to 
first fill all cracks and crevices with putty, to prevent 
the remover from getting into the filler and afterwards 
coming out and injuring the finish. Both turpentine 
and benzine will cut or soften wax so that it can be 
removed. Bare spots in an otherwise good floor can 
be touched up with shellac or varnish. 

DiscoLORATioNS FROM SoAP, ETC. — To make a floor 
look bright and new when badly discolored from any 
form of alkali is a problem not easy of solution. 
Coarse powdered pumicestone and soap powder, or the 
prepared powder containing soap and fine sand or other 
suitable abrasive, with hot water and scrubbing brush 
may do the trick. If this does not remove the worst 
spots try dilute oxalic acid, four ounces to three parts 
of water. 

Bleaching Old Oiled Floor. — The floor that has 
been oiled and that has become dark with age may 
be treated with varnish remover to cut out the oil, 
after which apply a bleaching powder, or for dark parts 
strong solution of oxalic acid. Try the acid first, 
and if it does not work then try the bleaching powder, 
which is very caustic. 

Re- Varnish a Floor. — First remove all heel marks 
and scratches ; maybe a rub with oil will cause them to 
disappear; if not, then sandpaper them until they are 
gone. Then give a coat of varnish. 

Renovated Floors Need Cleaning Off. — When 
a floor has been cared for, cleaned and touched up, year 
after year, it will become too full of material to wear 
well, and it should be cleaned off with steel wool or 
varnish remover, whichever you believe will answer 



78 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

the purpose best Clean off clear down to the wood, 
and build it up as if new wood. 

A Cleaned^Off Floor Not Durable.=^^A re- 
cleaned or renovated floor will not last as well as a new 
finished floor. This is partly due to the necessary use 
of chemicals in the cleaning-off process, which may re- 
main, to some extent, in the wood and injure the 
finish. After using varnish remover clean up with 
sal soda solution, and follow this with plenty of clear 
water, also a vinegar size, to neutralize any remaining 
alkali. 

Touching up Old Varnished Floor. — Touch up 
all bare spots with quick drying flat color, made to 
match the old floor color. Use japan color, adding 
only enough to stain the floor varnish. 

Caring for the Floor. — Hardwood floors require 
attention not less than twice a year. They should be 
polished that often, with frequent wipings in between 
times. Use a soft cloth. Remove mud stains with 
water and soap and cloth; do not use soap too freely. 
Be careful with benzine when trying to remove stains. 
If gasoline fails try oxalic acid. 

Grease on Parquetry Floor. — Rub the spot with' 
soft soap, rubbing vigorously; then pour a little alcohol 
over it, light the alcohol, being careful not to let it burn 
the floor finish. Then scour the spot with hot water, 
repeating this several times. 

Grease Spot on Waxed Floor. — Cover the spot 
with turpentine and let it remain on for one or two 
hours, if it will not evaporate in the meantime; in that 
case pour on a little more. Finally cover the spot with 
talcum powder and press it with a warm iron. Then 
brush off the talcum, and if you find the wax gone rub 
it with wax ; but if the wax has not been affected then 
repeat the process. 

A Few Minor Floor Notes. — There are commer- 



FINISHING HARDWOOD FLOORS 79 

cial oils intended for keeping varnished surfaces in 
order, they being about the same as the revivers or 
pohsh formulas which are given in this work. They 
are used by housekeepers, using a mop for the floors, 
the mop being made sHghtly wet with the oiL 
Then they should follow with a dry cloth and wipe up 
and polish the floor, though this is not always done. 

What is known as floor oil is intended to keep down 
the dust in stores or other public places, and such oils 
are made commercially, with about the following for- 
mula: Take pale paraffin oil of medium body and 
heat it gently; to each gallon add one pound of pre- 
viously melted hot paraffin wax of a melting point of 
not lower than 130 deg. Fahr. Be sure that the oil 
and wax are w^ell combined. The oil is applied with a 
long-handled brush, and is allowed to soak into the 
wood. 

Another formula for floor oil : Beeswax eight parts, 
water 56 parts, carbonate of potash four parts; dis- 
solve the potash in twelve parts of the water, heat the 
wax and the remainder of the water together until the 
wax is melted, then mix the solutions and boil until 
emulsified. 

Still another one : Paraffin oil eight parts, kerosene 
oil one part, lime water one part. Mix. 

A preparation for sprinkling over floors before 
sweeping them may be made upon this formula: 
Sifted sawdust one-half bushel, salt two pounds, crude 
naphtholine four ounces, and carbolic acid two ounces ; 
mix well and add enough cottonseed oil to slightly 
moisten the powder. 

It is the opinion of many good workmen that it is 
wrong to shellac over the flJler if you intend varnish- 
ing the floor ; the shellac is too brittle, and it will not 
allow the oil varnish to penetrate into the wood and 
so get a good hold. 



80 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

If you stain an oak floor gray do not apply oil var- 
nish over it, for the oil will alter and spoil your gray. 
Some say that if you stain gray with logwood and 
vinegar stain the gray wnll remain gray under varnish. 
But the varnish must be a clear one ; still, it will slightly 
yellow the gray. A case is on record where a very 
white bleached shellac varnish was put on gray-stained 
oak, and it slightly altered the color. A thin white 
glue size before applying shellac or varnish seems to 
be the best thing to prevent the altering of the gray. 

To remove an oil stain from a hardwood floor, use 
a mixture of benzole and benzine, equal parts. 

Douglass Fir Floor Finishing. — New floors of 
Douglass fir or hemlock should be dressed off with the 
hand-plane and w^ell scraped. This is essential to good 
results. When clean apply one coat of a good paste 
filler. The filler should be thinned down with raw 
linseed oil and benzine (mixed ratio i to 3), and al- 
lowed to thoroughly penetrate the wood. Any filler 
which remains on the surface should then be wiped off 
with a dry cloth and a coat of white shellac applied. 
The first coat of shellac should be thinned with dena- 
tured alcohol, allowing it also to easily penetrate the 
wood. The floor should then be gone over with a very 
fine sandpaper. Finally two coats of shellac are ap- 
plied, sandpapering between each. The second coat 
should be heavy and the last as heavy as can be worked. 
This process is for the very best class of work and 
gives a highly polished floor which will wear well. 
The use of a w^ood filler may be omitted on floors 
where the wear is not severe. It gives body, however, 
to the finish and will m.ore than repay the cost and 
labor, 

A second method is as follows: On the prepared 
floor apply a light coat of filler, rub down with fine steel 
wool to remove any excess filler that remains on the 



FINISHING HARDWOOD FLOORS 81 

surface, then apply one coat of good quality floor var- 
nish and rub down with fine steel wool. To finish in 
gloss give two coats of best quality varnish. If a dull 
finish is desired, rub down the last coat with fine pum- 
ice. For a wax finish apply one coat of prepared floor 
wax instead of two coats of floor varnish, and polish 
with weighted polishing brush. 

To restore the original finish to a floor when floors 
become dull and show wear, go over the floor with a 
cloth dampened with benzine, then apply a coat of floor 
wax with a soft cloth. Orange shellac should not be 
used as a finish as it darkens the floor. The above floor 
finishes are, of course, in natural colors. If stain ef- 
fects are desired in floors, the stain is applied first 
before the shellac or finish coats are put on. 



FINISHING VENEERED WORK 

The veneer used in cabinet and furniture work is 
simply hard wood sawed or sliced (as there are dif- 
ferent methods for producing veneers) into very thin 
pieces. These veneers are glued on to solid stock, and 
this fact must be kept in mind when about to under- 
take their finishing with stain and varnish, etc. Some- 
times trouble arises from the grain of veneer showing 
after the finishing. Thus it Avill be seen that the work- 
man must be both skilled and careful in order to pro- 
duce good work on this kind of wood surface. 

First of all we should understand what the veneer- 
ing is. As previously stated, there is the sawed and 
the sliced ; there is the rotary cut, plain, and the quarter- 
sawed veneer. Rotary-cut veneer, under proper treat- 
ment, finishes up practically the same as solid plain- 
sawed stock; identical treatment should produce the 
same result in both cases. Usually the raising of the 
irrain of the wood after finishing is due to the wood not 
being dry when finished, either when finished at the 
machine, or in the hands of the wood finisher. Take 
a job of solid wood, for instance, and let the stock be 
])ut through the planer and sander before it is per- 
fectly dry, and after it is finished with stain and var- 
nish it is all too apt to "grain out." Some of the grain 
of the wood shrinks away, leaving the rest of the sur- 
face to stand as if raised. Hence, if built-up panels 
are sanded immediately after gluing and before all 
the moisture from the glue has dried out there will 
])e a raising of the grain. Another j^robablc cause of 

Si 



FINISHING VENEERED WORK 83 

graining-out may be found in the use of veneer that 
has been too loosely cut, or it might come from the 
using of rotary-cut veneer with the wrong side out. 
Where the blocks have been properly boiled and the 
pressure bar well fitted and carefully adjusted rotary- 
cut veneer is tight and smooth on the outside as it 
peels from the log, and is rather stiff to bend, as com- 
pared with loosely-cut stock, where the pressure bar 
is not doing its duty, or where the logs have not been 
properly boiled or steamed. Some veneer manufac- 
turers indeed cut veneer one-sixteenth inch to one- 
eighth inch that is so tight and firm that it is rather 
difficult to tell the inside from the outside. On the 
other hand, there are those who cut it loosely, either 
from ignorance or carelessness, making a veneer that is 
simply a sheet of splinters held together by interlocking 
fibers. Veneer of this sort, as also veneer cut fairly 
tight but put on inside out, is very likely to show up 
bad in the finish. Or an excess of sanding on the face 
of a finished panel may cut away so much of the wood 
of the top layer as to leave what is practically the in- 
side of the veneer and is not as tightly cut as the out- 
side. 

Preparing Mahogany Veneered Surface. — For 
water stain, so that the grain will not rise. One way 
is to lightly sponge mahogany veneered panels and tops 
with water, and allow the work to stand on end over 
night, to drain and dry. Then the fuzz is removed with 
a belt sander, or by passing it through a drum sander, 
covered with No. oo sandpaper. Another method, 
followed in some factories, is to give the articles a thin 
glue size as they pass through a power-driven glue- 
spreader. By this method the grain is not only raised, 
but the resulting fuzz is left, hard and brittle, so it may 
easily be removed by fine sandpaper. If the grain is 
raised by some such preliminary treatment and then 



84 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

cut away, the rest of the surface will remain perfectly 
smooth when water stain is apj)lied. 

DvKiNr. \'f.nkeks r>i.ACK. — 'Phis may he done with 
logwood extract and yellow prussiate of potash, for- 
mulas for which see under the head of stains and stain- 
ing. 

Mahogany \''eneer ano Rirctt. — When these two 
woods are used together in the construction of an arti- 
cle use the same stain on the birch as that used on the 
veneer part, excepting that a double-strength stain is 
used on the birch. First coat the birch with the double- 
strength stain and. when dry. sandpaper if needed, then 
stain the birch and mahogany both with the regular 
stain. This will produce a uniform coloring and will 
not make the birch too dark. Fill the birch when you 
fill the mahogany. To prevent the filler from giving 
a cloudy effect coat with a very thin coat of shellac and 
sand lightly before filling. 

Birch and Walnut Veneer. — To finish birch 
when used with walnut veneer, first coat the birch wnth 
a water stain. Walnut crystals may be used in making 
the stain. Dissolve in warm, not hot, water, and stir 
until they dissolve. 

Finishing Walnut Veneer. — Unlike mahogany, 
walnut veneer is not stained, but is finished in almost 
its natural color. A little coloring matter, such as as- 
phaltnm or black japan, may be added to the filler, but 
that is all the coloring. If walnut and birch are to- 
gether fill both at the same time, using the same filler. 
When dry, shellac and body-up in the usual way. 
Don't use a pigment surfaccr on these finishes ; rub to 
a dull finish, or polish, as desired. 

Lines of Butt Joints do not Match. — It some- 
times occurs that the lines of butt joints do not match 
perfectly, and this may be rem«^died by taking a camel 
liair brush and a dark stain and carefully filling in. 



FINISHING VENEERED WORK 85 

making wider or extending the lines as required. Do 
not over-do it, though. 

Staining Veneered Work. — See that the surface 
is in proper condition before you begin. If it has not 
been sponged do it at once. Use clear warm water, 
and when it is dry sandpaper smooth with good sharp 
No. ooo paper, to remove the fuzz. Apply stain with a 
2- or 3-inch brush. Apply quickly, to avoid streaks; 
cover the whole surface freely with the stain, and 
brush it out evenly. Brush with the grain of the wood. 
Unless the stain is applied freely there is danger of lap- 
ping, while other places will be under-stained, produc- 
ing a streaked, faded effect. If the stain is too strong 
for this then reduce it. If you brush the stain too much 
there is danger of loosening any glue that may have 
found its way through the face veneer, and which 
would smear it over the surface, producing a murky 
effect. For the same reason water stain should not be 
wiped off veneered work. The presence of glue will be 
manifest in the slight foam of the stain. 

Polishing Veneered Work. — After scraping up 
the wood, apply a coat of size, for stopping up the 
grain, let this dry, then apply whatever stain you wish. 
and finally proceed to polish it. Don't use too much 
oil. The polishing is the same as for all hardwoods, 
but for a filler use a size for dark wood, and plaster of 
Paris for light. Lime is best for darkening Honduras 
mahogany, chestnut, etc. 

Protecting Inlay or Marquetry. — Where inlay 
or marquetry work is employed in connection witli 
hardwood work it is difficult to avoid injuring the 
former in the filling or staining of the latter. One way 
is to protect it v/ith shellac, but a better plan is to 
cover it with glue size to which has been added a little 
glycerine ; just how much glycerine to add will depend 
upon temperature. Usually this size can be taken off 



86 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

with a wet rag. But should it be difficuh to do this, 
then try a scraper, which must be handled carefully to 
avoid scratching the wood. A workman in the Pull- 
man shops gives this method : After filling the wood- 
work clean up the inlay or marquetry work with ben- 
zine and No. o sandpaper. I have no difficulty in clean- 
ing up such work, but I never use a pencil on shellac. 
We use satin-wood exclusively for inlay work; there 
is no grain in this wood for the stain or filling to 
affect. "There appears to be a manufactured mahog- 
any stain that will not discolor wood inlay, but will stain 
mahogany. If the furniture is composed of mixed 
woods it is necessary then to use an aniline stain in 
order to make uniform the different kinds of wood. 
And in this case it is necessary to trace the inlay with 
shellac or lacquer, using a very fine pencil or brush. 
Be careful to trace only the inlay and not get any of 
the shellac or lacquer on the wood ; in case you do the 
stain will not take. The stain will stick a little on this 
shellac, but after the work is stained the inlay may 
be scraped lightly and bring back the inlaid colors with- 
out much work." 

The foregoing is given without my recommendation, 
as I know nothing more than Avhat the account gives — 
it should be very useful if its claims are correct. It 
seems improbable. 

Penetrating Ebony Stain.— Nigrosine B, spirit 
or water stain, which has a blue-black undertone, is 
best for imitating ebony. Nigrosine black stain in 
solution with denatured i88 deg. proof alcohol that 
has been filtered will give better penetration than water 
stain. Weak stain will require more than one appli- 
cation. 

There are other ways to produce ebony stain, but 
they are troublesome and out of date. 



FINISHING VENEERED WORK 87 

Veneer Finishing Notes 

Stained veneer will remain lighter than solid wood. 
To overcome this apply a second coat of the stain to 
the veneer. 

To prevent the darkening of cross-grained wood 
moisten it with water just before staining, which will 
prevent the stain from penetrating too deeply. 

Crotch mahogany and burl walnut can seldom be 
improved by staining, but if it is desired to slightly 
deepen the color tone of the paler parts the stain 
should be very weak. The darker parts cannot be made 
darker by staining, and the more the lighter parts are 
darkened the more we reduce the contrast between the 
different parts; consequently the more we destroy the 
figure. 

It is possible to save one cent a foot on some face 
veneer and find that when it is ready for rubbing, in 
the finishing room, it is so badly checked that an extra 
coat of varnish is required, the cost of which is about 
twice the amount of the first saving. 

A good filler for veneered w^ork will dry flat in 
from ten to twenty minutes, and will not work sticky 
when being removed. If it dries with a gloss there is 
either too much oil or the pigment has settled to the 
bottom of the can. 

If reinforced panels used in building operations are 
given a coat of asphaltum on the back before being 
placed in position danger from dampness will be 
greatly reduced. 

The liquids used in connection with thin veneers 
must be such as will cause the least harm to the glue 
joints. And those that are very grain-raising are not 
at all desirable, as the raised grain means heavy sand- 
ing or scraping. 



88 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

For low grade veneer work stains composed of mild 
chemicals—those composed mostly of pure coal tar 
dyes—will give the best results. Stains containing acid 
chemicals will discolor the glue and the wood will show 
poor results. The work is made too rough by their 
use, and this renders too much sandpapering necessary. 

Fancy veneers, crotch and burl, are usually improved 
by a coat of light stain — a stain merely dark enough to 
take away the faded appearance of the lighter parts — 
although many persons prefer to have these fancy 
veneers finished quite natural. The stain does not 
make the dark lines of the wood darker, but it darkens 
the light lines only. The figure of the wood depends 
on the contrast between the colors of certain lines. If 
these lines were all of the same color there would be no 
figure. From this it will be observed that the more 
we lessen the contrast between the light and the dark 
lines by making the light lines darker, the less distinct 
the figure becomes. It is not thus with all woods; the 
figure of some wood is made by irregular grain; that 
is, part of the surface show^s a straight grain, part 
cross grain, and part will show considerable end wood, 
but the whole surface will be uniform of color. On 
such wood, up to certain well-defined limits which may 
be ascertained by experiments, the darker the stain 
used the more distinct the figure becomes, as the stain 
acts more powerfully on certain parts, such as the end 
wood, than on others. 

The checking of veneered work when being rubbed 
may be caused by one of several different defects. 
Perhaps the fiber of the wood was ruptured during 
cutting, the veneer may have been laid wrong side up ; 
it may have been laid before being made dry; it may 
have absorbed moisture from the glue before the pres- 
sure was applied. At any rate the checks are in the 



FINISHING VENEERED WORK 89 

veneer before the rubbing is done, and probably before 
the varnish was applied. See to it that the veneer is 
sound, perfectly dry, and laid right side up and placed 
under pressure before it can expand as a result of 
moisture from the glue. 



WOOD STAINS AND WOOD STAINING 

The stains used in wood finishing are obtained from 
both vegetable and mineral substances. In the former 
class are the roots, barks, woods, and plants that are 
rich in coloring matter, and with all of which we shall 
become familiar further on. In the mineral class are 
sienna, umber, etc., and which are the most durable of 
all colors. Then there must be included with the min- 
eral class the chemical colors, such as Prussian blue, 
lampblack, green, etc. Then, of more recent use, we 
have the coal tar dyes, more commonly known as ani- 
line dyes. These are more fugitive than either the 
mineral or vegetable dyes, as a rule. Some anilines 
now are made faster to light than formerly, and in time 
we may hope to see the whole list light-proof. While 
the vegetable and earth pigments are more durable than 
the anilines, they are not wholly light-proof, being 
liable to fade more or less in time. Much depends upon 
the direct exposure of the pigment to the sunlight for 
its stability. And when covered well with some suit- 
able coating, such as a varnish, for instance, sunlight 
has very much less effect upon it. At the worst, such 
stains will endure without serious decay for a long 
time, while the anilines will often fade badly within a 
few days. A house whose woodwork was stained a 
mahogany color with aniline dye faded very much be> 
fore the house was finished. Olive color aniline stain 
has been known to change to a dirty reddish-brown in 
a short time. Yet some of this instability of color 
may be attributed to the wood, which mav and in some 

90 



WOOD STAINS AND WOOD STAINING 91 

cases certainly does contain certain substances that 
alter and injure the stain. 

Vegetable and mineral pigments are usually pre- 
pared for use with water, but in some certain cases they 
may be used in oil or turpentine ; in either instance the 
first object is to extract the coloring matter, when 
possible, as it always is with vegetable colors, and 
sometimes with mineral colors. For staining wood 
it is most desirable to have the color extracted, which 
gives the most transparent dye, but where this is not 
possible, as with the mineral pigments, or where it is 
practically so, the stain must be used as thin as possible, 
and then all surface color be wiped off. In this respect 
the anilines are more useful, for they sink into the 
wood's fiber, thoroughly impregnating it, while leav- 
ing the surface colored, but not covered, nor affecting 
any figures or grain of the wood. 

Water stain is more penetrating than oil stain, 
and is very desirable and satis factor}", but it has the 
serious fault of raising the grain of some woods. 
Water stain also gives a more solid coloring, as it 
carries its pigment into the wood, while oil stain re- 
tains some of the pigment, and thereby gives a less 
opaque effect. Oil stain brushes out well on soft 
woods, water stains do not. Turpentine stain is ab- 
sorbed too quickly for equal distribution of coloring. 
On hard wood oil stain does not penetrate as well as 
water stain. Turpentine carries the color well into the 
wood, but is more costly than water, though not as 
costly as linseed oil. We speak of prices prevailing as 
we write. 

The best mineral or earth pigments to use with oil 
are Vandyke brown, burnt and raw sienna, and the two 
umbers, burnt and raw. These pigments must be 
ground butter-fine and of the highest grade. While 
both the mineral and chemical colors are suitable for 



92 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

use in oil staining, most of the vegetable stains are 
not. Of these latter may be mentioned turmeric, gam- 
boge, dragon's blood, etc. More will be said upon this 
subject further on. 

Most of the anilines employed in wood staining are 
water-soluble, and the oil-soluble anilines do not inter- 
est us. We may sometimes require aniline that is al- 
cohol-soluble, useful when a spirit stain is required. 
We have that, too. 

Anilines must not be placed in metal vessels, but in 
glass or porcelain, or glazed vessels. 

Where the stain is used daily or at more or less 
frequent intervals it is well to make what is called a 
stock solution. Place an ounce of the aniline in one 
quart of hot water, pouring the water over the aniline, 
stirring it with a wooden paddle. Soft water is the 
best for the purpose. Water containing lime or other 
mineral water is apt to injure the aniline dye. After 
about an hour the dye may be strained through raw 
cotton, placed in a funnel in the neck of a bottle. Use 
a glass, porcelain, or other non-metallic funnel. Cork 
the bottle tight, and label it with the name of the dye 
and its strength of solution. When wanted for use 
pour out a measured quantity and dilute it with a 
measured quantity of hot water. The rule is, an ounce 
of aniline to one gallon of water. So that the stock 
solution mentioned will bear three more quarts of 
water, and in this proportion when pouring it out 
for use. 

To save what dye remains in the cotton in the fun- 
nel remove it and soak it in a little hot water, just 
enough to take up the dye ; this done place the dye in 
another bottle and label it accordingly. 

In this way there is no waste of dye, as there must 
be in daily mixing, and you may have an assortment of 
stock dves of various colors on hand, for readv use. 



WOOD STAINS AXD WOOD STAINING 93 

And they will remain good for quite a long while, 
if not used. 

To prepare aniline with alcohol place one-half ounce 
of the dye in a vessel, as previously directed, and pour 
over it one quart of alcohol ; shake it occasionally for 
a few hours; then filter it into another suitable vessel, 
and finally filter it into a bottle, which label as before 
directed. While it is not really necessary to filter 
this, it will perhaps be as well, and certainly will 
do no harm. For filtering it, use filter paper, and place 
a saucer over it, to prevent evaporation as much as 
possible. 

Remember that both water and alcohol aniline stain 
must be applied very swiftly and deftly, in order to 
secure uniform coating of the surface of whatever 
object you have in hand, the larger and wider that 
surface the more dif^culty in the staining and the 
more need of care. Spirit stain is especially difficult 
on account of its quick setting, and only the expert 
may hope to accomplish the work with perfect success. 
Many prefer a small sponge for applying the stain; 
others choose a flat, wide, soft bristle or hair brush. 
Immediately the stain has been laid it should be wiped 
off, if the figures of the wood are to be brought out 
well. 

A stain may be made lighter by dilution and darker 
by applying two coats. Some woods seem to require 
two applications to appear at their best. Soft wood, 
that is to say, that which is soft in parts, or spongy, as 
it is called, should first have a ver}^ thin coat of shellac, 
then the stain. Some woods require bleaching first. 
Bleaching may be accomplished by a wash made 
from 

Chloride of tin 8 oz. 

Soda crystals 1 oz. 

Water 5 pts. 



94 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

Apply this, and after a few minutes give it a wash 
with dilute sulphuric acid, then wash off with clear 
water; let it dry, then stain it. 

Raising of the grain of wood may be largely pre- 
vented by whetting the wood with water, which will 
raise all grain that is not fast ; when this dries sandpaper 
off, and then when you stain with water stain there 
will be very little rising of the grain. A finisher says 
his plan is to first wet the wood with a mixture of 
benzine five parts, and raw linseed oil one part. This 
reduces the amount of raised grain, and at the same 
time prevents the stain from sinking in too far, thus 
giving a more uniform staining. These ideas of prac- 
tical workmen are worthy of consideration. Some 
finishers add a little glycerine to a spirit stain, some 
add a little castor oil both of which are liable to cause 
trouble with the succeeding coats of shellac or varnish. 
About one tablespoonful of castor oil to the quart of 
stain is used; but the stain must have extra time for 
drying, on account of the non-drying oil, in case the 
finish is to be varnish on a filled wood. In the case of 
such finishes as Flemish oak, for instance, and which 
require neither filler nor varnish, the oil will do no 
harm, and a more liberal use may be made of it. How- 
ever, it might be well to use, instead of oil, Venice tur- 
pentine, a tablespoonful to the pint of stain. 

It has been pointed out that the nature of the wood 
that is to be stained must be taken into consideration, 
as woods differ in regard to their reception of the dif- 
ferent stains. Take maple, for example, which can be 
stained gray easily, while oak will not give the proper 
gray color in most cases, since its color tends too much 
toward yellow, so that the gray stain, after waxing, 
shows a greenish hue. Light gray stain on oak is very 
apt to turn yellow, especially where the stain is not 
light-proof, such as the coal tar stains. All woods 



WOOD STAINS AND WOOD STAINING 95 

stained gray with iron salts or other metallic salts, such 
as potassium chromate, copper sulphate, etc., take on 
a brown tone in course of time. 

When mixing stains from anilines at the shop care 
should be observed to select light-proof colors, and 
where two or more colors are to be mixed together see 
that they are as near alike as possible as to their fastness 
to the light. For instance, if a brown stain is mixed 
from black, yellow and red, then the stained wood will 
gradually take on a much lighter shade than desirable 
if the red was less light-proof than the other colors. 
So with the mixing of any other of the fundamental 
colors, it depends on the preponderance of some color 
in the dye whether the final stain will have one shade 
or another. If in a brown color red is in excess the 
final shade will be reddish-brown. The modern green- 
ish-brown shades similar to the fumed finish are 
usually mixed with green, and green deadens all colors. 
If too much of it is used the shade will have too deep a 
greenish hue, and then red may be used to offset the 
green. 

Aniline dyes may be deepened in shade by adding 
a little potassium chromate or a little sodium hydrox- 
ide. Most colors may be made by using the funda- 
mentals red, yellow and blue. Since the blues are, 
however, less light-proof than the others, they are 
avoided wherever possible, other colors being substi- 
tuted. 

It is impossible to get exactly the same color on a 
wood with the same stain. A piece of furniture will 
show considerable differences in shades in the various 
parts, a condition that is not very obvious in the com- 
pleted object. But if these different parts were to be 
laid side by side a great difference might be observed. 
The reason lies of course in the natural difference of 
the wood itself. Oak, for example, shows such a dif- 



96 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

fcrence even when taken from the same trunk or log 
that it is impossihk^ to get a uniform shade over the 
entire surface. Arguments have arisen over this sub- 
ject, the finisher claiming that a stain is at fauU when 
it fails to stain two pieces of wood alike, when that is 
impossible owing to the fact that the grain and struc- 
ture of the two woods, though of the same tree, is not 
the same. If veneering and solid wood form one piece 
of furniture, say, the veneer will always be lighter than 
the solid wood, and to overcome this it is only neces- 
sary to add a second coat of stain to the light part, 
using either the same stain or some oil or spirit stain. 
Darkening of cross-grained w'ood or carvings can be 
avoided by moistening the part with water just before 
staining, to prevent the stain from penetrating too 
deeply. To some extent the moistening of the wood 
will prevent irregularity of effect in staining. 

All vivid stains containing alkaline ingredients or 
even potassium chromate should be avoided, as they 
fade rapidly under the influence of light and exhibit 
other bad features with lapse of time. For example, 
the chromate and the soda in the hydroxide destroy the 
shellac coating, and w-ith very strong solutions of the 
chemicals yellow and gray spots appear after a time, 
and they are very difficult of elimination. 

Coal tar stains have the disadvantage of leaving the 
pores in the wood lighter than the rest of the wood, but 
this can be remedied by waxing the surface after stain- 
ing. Too much wax should not be used, as then the 
pores become too dark, and the surface of the wood 
takes on a dirty brown appearance. 

S taming Oak 

To Match Brown Oak. — When it is desired to 
match brown or pollard oak on common oak use a stain 



WOOD STAINS AND WOOD STAINING 97 

made from one ounce of bichromate of potash dissolved 
in five pints of soft water; this is a weak solution, but 
strong enough for the purpose. Should it not be 
strong enough, use more of the potash. Apply with 
a soft sponge. 

Weathered Oak. — Make a solution of equal parts 
of water and iron sulphate, or iron acetate. Or, dis- 
solve bichromate of potash, one ounce, in one pint 
of water, and apply in alternate coats with the iron 
solution given above; each coat must be dry before 
applying the next. 

Or, dissolve two ounces each of potash and pear lash 
in one quart of water; use alternately with a solution 
of either iron acetate or iron sulphate. 

Take of powdered ivory black and Vandyke brown 
equal parts and make into a paste with alcohol, making 
a stiff mass, after which add a little shellac varnish, 
when it is ready for thinning with alcohol for use. 

Add a little Bismarck brown to Nigrosine B, and 
dilute with water to form a stain. Or dilute with alco- 
hol, which will prevent raising of the grain. The 
shellac serves as a binder to the stain, and gives a near- 
dead finish without further treatment. For red oak 
make a stain more on the blue-black order. An oil 
stain may be made from Vandyke brown and ivory 
drop black in oil, thinned with equal parts of oil and 
turpentine, or with the latter alone, or with benzine 
and a little japan drier. 

Bog Oak. — Dissolve two ounces of permanganate 
of potash in one quart of boiling water; when cold 
add to it one ounce of verdigris that has been dis- 
solved in strong vinegar or acetic acid. To deepen 
the color add more verdigris solution; to lighten, add 
potash solution. 

To make bog oak on white oak dissolve an ounce 
of verdigris in one pint of ammonia water. 



98 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

Mix with one gallon of 95 per cent, alcohol one 
pound of the best powdered Turkey burnt umber and 
two ounces of chemically pure chrome green, light 
shade; shake the mixture occasionally, and after 
twenty-four hours add one pint of shellac varnish, and 
strain all throueh a fine sieve. 

Mission Oak. — Break up two pounds of drop black, 
ground in oil, and add one ounce of rose pink, in oil, 
with one-half pint of the best brown japan, thinning 
the mass with three pints of turpentine, then straining- 
it through cheese-cloth. Japan colors will give a 
quicker-drying stain, but in this case omit the brown 
japan and use in its place a little varnish, to act as a 
binder. One gill of copal varnish will do. 

Here is a similar process : Mix boiled linseed oil 
and asphaltum together in equal proportions; apply 
as a stain, with a brush. In a minute or so rub off 
with a cloth, removing the surplus stain, and then 
v^hen dry it may be varnished, if desired. One gal- 
lon of the stain wnll cover 600 square feet of smooth 
surface. 

Flemish Oak. — The wood is not filled, and the 
stain is black. Nigrosine black is used, and for quick 
work, such as picture frame makers use, the aniline 
spirit stain is required. Two coats may be given 
within one hour. 

Or thin up some japan black with turpentine, and 
add a little coach varnish to bind it. Or, dissolve four 
ounces of Seal Brown aniline in one gallon of boiling 
w^ater, and when cold add four ounces of strong vine- 
gar. It will require several coats of this stain to make 
a black of some denth. Or Nigrosine black may be 
used in place of Seal Brown. 

Light and Dark. — The li2:ht oak stain may be 
made with two pounds of raw Italian sienna and one- 
half pound of raw Turkey umber, both ground in oil ; 



WOOD STAINS AND WOOD STAINING 99 

thin up with one-half gallon each of boiled oil and 
turpentine, with one quart of brown japan. 

Dark oak may be made from burnt umber alone, or 
with raw umber, or with umber and sienna, according 
to depth of color desired. 

Golden Oak. — One of the best golden oak stains is 
made from equal parts of gold size japan and best 
asphaltum varnish, thinning with turpentine. This 
stain will not raise the grain of the wood and it dries 
hard ; wipe off soon after application. Asphaltum itself 
is the finest of golden or dark oak stains, but it acts 
rather badly under varnish. 

A spirit stain may be made by steeping one ounce 
of powdered nutgalls in one pint of alcohol, which 
let stand, well corked, for three days. Then strain 
it. It should then be quite black. Now dissolve one- 
half ounce of Bismarck brown in one-half pint of alco- 
hol, strain, and add to the first solution; then add a 
teaspoonful of tin chloride and enough alcohol to 
make the whole one quart. If the Bismarck brown 
makes the color too red use a solution of saffron in 
alcohol instead. 

A water stain golden oak may be made with one 
pound of burnt umber and one-half pound of raw 
sienna, both in dry or powdered form. Mix with one 
gallon of water, and then add one gill of strong am- 
monia water, of about 28 deg. strength. 

Antwerp Oak. — Dissolve Nigrosine black in water 
and add a little Bismarck brown. The flakes of the 
oak should show up a coffee color or brown, and with 
the grain showing black. 

Gray Oak. — Silver-gray is a popular color in the 
Mission finishes, and here is a simple formula for 
making it. Dissolve four ounces of copperas and the 
same of powdered nutgalls; dissolve in one quart of 
hot water; then add enough cold water to make two 



100 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 



gallons of fluid or stain. This stain should not l)e 
mixed nor used in met^al containers. 

If the wood is poor grade add a httle glycerine, to 
help keep the grain down. Then sandpaper, after 
which apply a thin coat of shellac, and fill with a filler 
made from white lead thinned a little with turpentine. 
Wipe off across the grain before the filler is dry, and 
get as much lead as possible in the pores of the wood. 

The woodwork in the Elks' Home, Brooklyn, N. Y., 
was finished silver-gray in the following manner : 
The raw wood was stained with a thin solution of 
equal parts of raw linseed oil and turpentine, with a 
very little raw sienna and raw umber to stain the thin- 
ners. This was applied very thin and then wiped off. 
When this was dry the pores of the wood were filled 
with a gray white filler — or heavy lead paint. This 
was mixed to dry flattened when nearly dry, was rubbed 
off with excelsior or cotton waste. In this manner 
the pores, filled with the gray paint, gave a silvery 
appearance to the oak. 

A very nice bluish-gray stain may be made from a 
solution of iron sulphate, the color depending on the 
strength of solution and tannin content of the wood. 

Dark Oak Stains. — A very pleasing brown shade 
may be imparted to oak with strong coffee decoction. 
The alkalies darken oak; these are soda, potash, lime, 
ammonia, pearlash, etc. And these may be applied over 
washes of logwood, fustic, and madder. 

Antique Oak. — Dissolve twelve ounces of pow- 
dered Vandyke brown in one gallon of water, to which 
add one pint of ammonia water, of i6 or i8 deg. 
Heat this stain on the stove, and after removing it, 
add one-half pint of turpentine, to prevent the raising 
of the grain. 

Silver-Gray Effects. — Silver-gray is one of the 
most delicate and elusive of finishes. It is an acid stain. 



WOOD STAINS AND WOOD STAINING 101 

hence most suitable to hardwoods, both open- and close- 
grained. Some object to the monotonous coloring of 
silver-gray, but where certain open-grained woods are 
used, such as oak, ash, chestnut, etc., this one-tone ef- 
fect is broken up, because those woods exert a green or 
yellow influence which tends to the silver-gray off- 
color. Use a white paste filler with it, which will not 
only fill the pores of the wood, but will assist the stain 
to alter the influence of the natural wood color. But 
the paste filler is not advised for the close-grained 
hardwoods; however, the woods of this class are 
mostly maple and white birch, and are white enough 
to take the silver-gray very perfectly with the acid 
stain alone. 

It is almost a rule that only the hard woods are 
suitable for silver-gray effects, but some very fine 
effects in this color have been obtained on gum wood. 
In this case both the white paste filler and stain are 
used, but the filler is applied on the acid stain without 
a coat of shellac between. The idea is to have the stain 
and filler meet. But be careful not to get the filler 
too thin, as you would do for an open-grained 
wood. 

Gum does not ridge-up like yellow pine does when 
the acid stain is applied, at least not to any such notice- 
able extent; with yellow pine should be included the 
Dther soft woods. The effect is that of a silvery mar- 
bled gray, which is even more distinctive than the same 
effect seen on some of the woods usually employed 
in silver-gray staining. 

Trouble in Oak Finishing. — In too many cases 
the oak furniture that comes to the finishing room con- 
sists of poorly matched parts, different kinds of the 
wood being put together without regard for the 
finished appearance. If the woodworker would exer- 
cise more care in constructing the piece, getting ad- 



102 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

joining parts of the one kind of wood, the task of the 
finisher woukl be greatly Hghtened. There is no excuse 
for the putting together of a small and large figured 
piece. On this, as well as on some other accounts, 
there is more trouble in finishing oak than any other 
wood. Then the sanding of the wood should be done 
more carefully ; taking a sample of oak with flake ef- 
fects. It is better to use coarse sandpaper on it, which 
will tear up the grain, and if stained or filled then 
you will get a greater depth of color; after which, 
when dry, smooth it with fine paper. This will bring 
out the lights as clear as possible. 

Oak Stain Formulas. — A rich golden oak color 
may be obtained by dissolving eight pounds of bi- 
chromate of potash and one ounce of concentrated lye 
In one and one-half gallons of boiling water. Let this 
stand over night, or from four to six hours, then add 
enough denatured alcohol to make four gallons of fluid. 
Then cut two ounces of logwood extract m one pmt 
of alcohol and add it to the potash and lye solution. 
For a deeper color give two coats. Let the job stand 
over night, or even longer. Then sandpaper until the 
lights are clear, after which dust off and apply a wal- 
nut oil stain; wipe off with a clean cloth. The next 
day fill with a black paste filler. 

Another shade can be secured by dissolving one part 
of permanganate of potash In thirty parts of water; 
stain twice with this in succession. After about five 
minutes wash over with clear water. Let it dry, then 
apply solution of iron acetate. Go lightly over the 
work Avith this, and it will bring out the dark shades 
and lines. Fill with black paste filler. 

A good cheap oil stain may be made from one gallon 
of asphaltum, one gallon of benzine, and one quart 
each of benzol and turpentine. Fill before it is too dry 
on the lisfhts. say in an hour. 



WOOD STAINS AND WOOD STAINING 103 

Stains Various 

Brown Stains. — Various browns may be obtained 
by mordanting with bichromate of potash and by ap- 
plying a decoction of fustic or logwood. 

Diluted sulphuric acid, applied to a clean surface, 
gives a brown stain varying with the strength of the 
solution. As soon as the acid has browned the wood 
sufficiently arrest its action by the application of am- 
monia water. Use a bristle brush for applying the acid. 

A simple brown stain may be made by digesting in 
alcohol one-half ounce of alkanet root, one ounce of 
aloes, and one ounce of dragon's blood; one pint of 
alcohol. First mordant with an acid. Alcohol stains 
are usually not durable. 

Tincture of iodine gives a fine brown on wood, but 
the color is not permanent, though it may be made 
largely so by coating it with varnish. 

Bismarck brown one part, sulphate of soda eighteen 
parts, and Nigrosine one-fourth part ; or you can omit 
the Nigrosine. Dissolve all in water to the required 
strength. Or try Benzo Brown three parts and table 
salt ten parts. 

A good, cheap stain, useful for floors especially, may 
be obtained by dissolving one-fourth ounce of per- 
manganate of potash in one quart of hot water, ap- 
plying this hot and freely. At first the color is a 
bright magenta red, but it soon changes to brown. A 
darker color may be had by giving it two coats or 
more. When dry rub with wax or with boiled linseed 
oil. 

Place one pound of powdered Vandyke brown in 
one gallon of hot water, and boil it until the quantity 
is reduced to two-thirds. Mix two ounces of potash 
with water enough to dissolve it, then mix it with the 
stain. Two or more coats as desired. 



104 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

Sulphate of iron solution gives a yellowish-brown. 

Boil one part of catechu, cutch or Gainbier, with 
thirty parts of water, then add a little bicarbonate of 
soda. Apply the stain, and when dry apply one par) 
bichromate of soda in thirty parts of water. By a lit- 
tle difference in the method of treatment, and by vary- 
ing the strength of the soltition, this will give various 
shades of brown. The stain is permanent and tends to 
preserve the wood. 

Black Stains. — The following stain may be ap- 
plied to almost any wood, and successfully. Boil one 
ounce of logwood extract in three and one-quarter 
l)ints of water, and when the dye has been entirely 
boiled out of the extract take the liquid and add to it 
one dram of yellow chromate of potash and then shake 
the mixture. The color at first will be a purple, but 
it quickly becomes black. This stain makes a fairly 
good writing ink. 

Brazil wood one part, and five parts of water; boil 
with fifteen per cent, of alum. For a very deep black 
mordant the wood with iron solution, then apply the 
stain. 

Nigrosine black four ounces, dissolved in one gallon 
of boiling water. A denser solution will give a deeper 
black, even a jet. 

Apply a coat of hot logwood solution, let it dry, then 
give a second application ; when this is dry apply iron 
solution, which will act upon the logwood stain and 
jiroduce a dense black. Tt may be finished with wax 
and the wax be rubbed with raw linseed oil, or it may 
be left as it is. 

Boil together powdered nutgalls and Brazil wood 
in soft water until the liquid becomes black ; filter and 
apply hot. As many coats as may be required to pro- 
duce a good black, following with a coat of iron acetate 
solution. If this is supplemented with a coat of alum 



WOOD STAINS AND WOOD STAINING 10." 

and nitric acid solution, with also a little verdigris, the 
* durability of the stain will be increased. Finally, apply 
a decoction of nutgalls and logwood. 

Break up one ounce of nutgalls and pour over it one- 
half pint of strong vinegar. After it has stood thirty 
minutes add an ounce of iron filings, which will cause 
the vinegar to effervesce. Cover it, but do not ex- 
clude all air. Let it stand another thirty minutes, and 
then it will be ready to use. Apply as many coats of 
this stain as may be necessary to get the depth of color 
you want. Keep in a tightly stoppered bottle. 

Black Stains for New Furniture. — Of the vari- 
ous methods used for producing black stain on wood 
probably the best chemical substance to use is sulphide 
of soda or potash, in the lump. It makes a fast black, 
superior to that produced with acetate of iron or tannic 
acid. The first application of sulphide of potash or 
soda must be left to dry, about two days, before giv- 
ing the second coat. An intense black results. 

Boil one pound of logwood chips in two quarts of 
water for one hour. Apply it hot, and when dry repeat 
the application. Then dissolve one ounce of copperas 
in one quart of water, or stronger if you wish, and 
apply it. This will give an intense black, exposure to 
the air developing the color. For the finish make a 
size with dry lampblack and glue, with water, making 
the size very thin, and apply it. Sandpaper with fine 
paper, then apply a coat of shellac made slightly dark 
with drop black, thinning out with alcohol. Or add 
drop black to good copal varnish and of this apply two 
coats ; the finish may be either dull or gloss. 

Ebony Stains. — For hardwood apply two coats of 
Nigrosine black stain and fill with black filler; make 
smooth with fine sandpaper, then apply a coat of ivory 
japan black thinned with turpentine; when dry var- 
nish and polish. 



106 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

Take two pounds of logwood chips, one-half pound 
of copperas, four ounces of dry drop black, one pound 
of logwood extract, and boil in two quarts of water for 
four hours. Strain, then add an ounce of powdered 
nutgalls. 

Nutgalls fourteen ounces, ground logwood three and 
one-half ounces, and verdigris one and three-fourths 
ounces. Apply one coat and let it dry ; then appl}^ two 
or three coats of acetate of iron solution. 

Red Ebony. — Sycamore is a fine wood for making 
red ebony on, though beech is a close second. Mor- 
dant the wood with a hot alum solution, and when this 
is dry apply a hot solution of Brazil wood. When this 
has dried apply a cold solution of iron acetate. 

Lignum Vit^. — Sycamore and beech are the best 
woods for this stain. Apply a hot decoction of mad- 
der, let it dry, then apply a wash of sulphuric acid, 
washing off with clear water as soon as the desired 
depth of color is obtained. 

The Best Woods for EBONiziNC—These are those 
woods that have a very close grain, and which are very 
dense and hard. Pear wood is considered by many to 
be the best wood, but apple, sycamore and hazelwood 
are very suitable. 

Common Black Staining. — Boil together Brazil- 
wood, powdered nutgalls and alum in soft water until 
the water turns black. Filter and then apply while 
warm. Repeat until the color is deep enough, then 
apply a solution of iron acetate. 

Walnut Stains. — Mix together equal parts of raw 
umber and Vandyke brown to a paste with ammonia 
water; reduce to desired consistency with water. 

Make up a mordant of permanganate of potash one 
ounce in one quart of water; apply it, and when dry 
apply a coat of a solution of one ounce of powdered 
nutgalls mixed with four ounces of potash and a little 



WOOD STAINS AND WOOD STAINING 107 

Vandyke brown for color, so that there will be alto- 
gether one quart of stain. 

Mix together one-half gallon of boiled linseed oil, 
one quart of best brown japan, and one-half gallon of 
turpentine; add two pounds of burnt umber, ground 
in oil. A deeper color may be had by adding one-half 
pound of either drop black or Vandyke brown. A 
lighter color may be obtained by adding one-half 
pound of burnt sienna to the first formula. 

A light walnut stain may be made with one ounce 
of permanganate of potash dissolved in thirty ounces 
of pure soft water ; apply two coats, allowing intervals 
of five minutes between coats. Wash off with clear 
water, and when dry oil and polish. 

A dark walnut may be obtained by following the 
above formula and after washing with clear water 
make dark veins in the wood with acetate of iron solu- 
tion, using a soft hair pencil. 

A cheap walnut stain may be made by dissolving 
dry burnt umber in a little vinegar; then mix one 
pound of dry Venetian red with one pint of asphaltum 
and one quart of turpentine, adding this to the vinegar 
preparation. 

White pine or any white wood will take a walnut 
stain well. Permanganate of potash gives a good wal- 
nut on white wood, and the natural growth seen in 
walnut may be imitated very nicely with soft hair 
pencil and acetate of iron solution. Privet berries, 
two ounces in one-half pint of water, yield a good 
walnut stain. Burnt umber is a good walnut color, 
and it may be lightened with burnt sienna or darkened 
with drop black or Vandyke brown. Vandyke alone 
gives a good dark walnut color. These pigments may 
be mixed with either oil or water. 

To one gallon of shellac add one pound of dry burnt 
umber, one pound of dry burnt sienna, and one-quarter 



108 THE KXPEKT WOOD FTNTSTTFT^ 

pound of dry lampblack. Sift the pigments together, 
then stir in thin shellac. Apply one coat, let it dry, 
sandpa])cr lightly, and finish with shellac or copal var- 
nish. Uscfnl for the backboards of mirrors, etc. 

Cherry Stain. — Bismarck brown makes a good 
cherry stain ; place one ounce in two quarts of boiling 
hot water and add one-half gill of vinegar. Thin down 
with water if too dark. 

A cheap stain may be made with one pound of dry 
burnt sienna and one pint of vinegar. Apply plenty 
and wipe off when done. 

Mix two pounds of burnt sienna and one pound of 
raw sienna, hoih ground in oil, in two quarts of boiled 
oil, one quart of the best brown japan, and the same 
of turpentine. 

Note Regardtng Pigments. — Tn all cases where 
burnt or raw sienna or burnt or raw umber are men- 
tioned it is to be understood that only the best grades 
of these pigments are to be used. The Italian siennas 
and Turkey umbers are the best. Even where the best 
sienna is used there may be a difference of shade or 
color tone, as siennas vary between dark and light, 
from a cherry-red to a brownish-red. In case you 
have the brownish-red for the above formula omit the 
raw sienna. 

Dragon's blood gives a good cherry stain, two ounces 
to the quart of alcohol ; shake it now and then, to hasten 
digestion. 

l^)oil four ounces of annata in three quarts of soft 
water, preferably in a copper kettle; add a lump of 
potash about the size of a hulled walnut. Let the ket- 
tle be on the fire for thirty minutes after adding the 
potash ; be sure the annata is perfectly digested be- 
fore adding the potash. 

Equal parts of alkanet root, aloes, and dragon's 
blood are to be steeped in alcohol that will equal in 



WOOD STAINS AND WOOD STAINING 109 

weight twenty times the combined weight of the colors; 
use 95 per cent, alcohol. Let the decoction stand sev- 
eral days, in tightly stoppered bottles. Mordant sur- 
face of wood with dilute nitric acid, about ten per cent, 
strength; this will give a dark effect, but the stain may 
be lightened with alcohol. Strain it before using. 

Red Stains. — Carmine thirty parts, ammonia fifty 
parts, salicylic acid three parts, and distilled water 
from i,ooo to 2,000 parts. Rub the carmine down in a 
porcelain mortar, and stir it up with a little water. 
The acid having dissolved in the ammonia, add the so- 
lution gradually to the carmine, which it will dissolve. 
Finally add the rest of the water by degrees. 

Eosine aniline red one part, sulphate of soda ten 
parts, and acetic acid three parts, in water to give the 
desired strength. 

Magenta No. 2, B, one and one-half parts, auramine 
one part, soda sulphate ten parts ; in water to give the 
desired strength. 

Azo cochineal two parts, soda sulphate ten parts, 
with water to give desired strength of color. 

Rose benzol five parts, in water ten parts. 

For the above aniline dyes use an alum-water 
mordant. 

Blue Stains. — There are many ways of obtaining 
handsome blue effects with anilines. There are bleu 
de Lyon, with a reddish cast; bleu de lumiere, a pure 
blue; and light blue, which has a slightly greenish 
cast. These anilines may be dissolved at the rate of one 
part of color to thirty parts of 90 per cent, alcohol; 
apply stain to wood in the usual manner. Another very 
fine blue may be had by dissolving a little more than 
one ounce of the best indigo carmine in eight and three- 
quarters ounces of water. Give the wood several coats, 
allowing each coat sufficient time to dry. A very simple 
and cheap blue stain may be had by applying a coat 



no THE EXPERT WOOD. FINISHER 

of Prussian blue, dissolved in water, repeating the 
operation for greater depth of colon When dry size 
with warm, not hot, glue size. When dry sandpaper 
lightly with fine paper; finish with a coat of varnish or 
polish. 

Green Stains. — Brilliant green three parts, Bis- 
marck brown one-half part, and soda sulphate ten parts. 
Or Brilliant green one part, chrisoidine one and one- 
half parts, and soda sulphate ten parts. Or Malachite 
green one part, Nile blue, A, one-quarter part, and soda 
sulphate ten parts. All to be dissolved in water suffi- 
cient. 

Emerald green may be obtained with a coat of Vic- 
toria green. A deep olive green may be obtained with 
a coat of yellow or orange stain on the Victoria green. 

A handsome bluish-green may be obtained by treat- 
ing the wood with prussiate of potash solution, after 
which apply a solution of iron acetate. This makes a 
sort of peacock blue. 

The once popular malachite green stain used on fur- 
niture and house trim is made from Prussian blue and 
raw sienna, in certain proportions. 

Green Stain on Oak. — Mix some bronze green 
paint in oil and make to a thin paint with turpentine. 
This is to be applied with a woolen cloth, not with a 
brush ; rub it off well. 

Or add four ounces of verdigris to three pints of 
strong vinegar ; first pulverize the verdigris. Add one- 
half ounce of sap green and the same of indigo; add 
also some brown stain made from the hulls of walnuts 
boiled in water. Apply hot with a brush. 

Yellow Stains. — Yellow stains vary greatly in 
composition, and most of them are rather fugitive. 
A fairly stable one consists of half as much barberry 
wood as water, by weight, adding a little alum to the 
extract. 



WOOD STAINS AND WOOD STAINING 111 

Apply to surface of wood a hot concentrated solu- 
tion of picric acid; let this dry, then stain it. Be 
careful with picric acid, very poisonous. 

Boil one pound of Persian berries and two ounces of 
pearlash in one gallon of water; add gradually a strong 
solution of alum. When precipitated pour off the 
water. 

For orange yellow apply a coat of nitric acid, one- 
half part mixed with one and one-half parts of rain 
or other soft water. The undiluted acid will give a 
brownish-yellow. 

Yellows may be made from Auramine four parts, 
and sulphate of soda ten parts. Or Naphthol yellow 
one part and sulphate of soda ten parts. Or Crocein 
orange one part, sulphate of soda ten parts, and sul- 
phuric acid one part. Water sufficient. 

Rosewood Stain. — To one gallon of alcohol add 
two ounces of camwood; set it in a warm place for 
twenty- four hours, then add three ounces of logwood 
and one ounce of nitric acid; when all is dissolved 
strain and use. 

Apply a coat of aniline blue, over which apply a 
coat of crimson, orange, or yellow stain. 

To one pound of rose pink add one pint of good 
asphaltum varnish, one pint of the best brown japan, 
one pint of boiled oil, and one quart of turpentine. If 
the color is too dark add more rose pink; if too light 
add more asphaltum and turpentine. 

Dissolve two ounces of Eosine, G, aniline, and one 
ounce of Nigrosine in two quarts of boiling water; 
when cold add one-half pint of vinegar. 



STAINING WICKERWARE AND WILLOW 
FURNITURE 

The wood must first of all be mordanted with lime 
water, this being prepared by slaking fresh quicklime 
with water enough to cause it to fall to pieces and 
into a powder ; to one pint of this fine powder add from 
fifteen to twenty pints of water ; allow the lime to settle 
from the water, after having stirred water and lime 
well together, and then pour off the clear liquid for 
use. 

The willowware manufacturer steeps the willows 
for several hours in the lime water, then they are dried 
with heat running up to loo deg. After drying, and 
before becoming cold, they are steeped in a fluid stain; 
brown is most commonly used, though many other 
colors also come into use. 

Brown Stain. — Dissolve one ounce of permanga- 
nate of i)otash in five parts of water; dip the willows 
in this and lift them out at once, allowing them to drain 
off. This gives a pale brown, but various dark tones 
may be obtained by allowing the willows longer time 
in the potash solution. 

Or dissolve four and one-half ounces of potash in 
five pints of water, and steep the willows or wickerware 
in the fluid for two hours, then boil for two hours in 
a boiling solution of pyrogallic acid, made by dissolv- 
ing two and one-half ounces of this acid in five pints 
of water. 

Or dissolve three and one-half ounces of catechu 
and one and one-half ounces of soda crystals in five 
pints of water bv boiling; steep the wickerware in the 

112 



STAINING WICKERWARE 113 

fluid for three or four hours, let it dry, then steep for 
one hour in a solution of five ounces of bichromate of 
potash in five pints of water. 

Blue. — Dissolve two ounces of indigo carmine in 
one quart of water, and soak the wickerware in the 
fluid for five or six hours. 

Green. — Dissolve two ounces of indigo sulphate 
and one ounce of picric acid in fifty ounces of boiling 
water. Steep the ware in the fluid for several hours. 
Different tones of green may be obtained by altering 
the relative proportions of the coloring matters. 

Yellow. — Dissolve one ounce of picric acid in 
five quarts of boiling water and steep the ware in it 
for two hours. 

All the foregoing bright colors are to be obtained 
only on fresh, clean stock, the wood being white. But 
old wickerware can be stained as described further on. 

Gray. — In the case of new wickerware it will be 
found that by coloring it a gray the dirt and grime 
will not show so readily as with the unstained wood. 
A good gray may be obtained by dissolving forty-five 
ounces of iron sulphate in seven and one-half pints of 
cold water ; steep the ware in this for from two to six 
hours, and then, after drying, steep in a solution of 
one and one-half pounds of pyrogallic acid in five 
pints of water. 

Staining Old Wickerware. — Dissolve one and 
one-half pounds of aniline nitrate and one ounce of 
copper chloride in nine and one-half gallons of water. 
Boil the ware in the fluid for one hour, then place it in 
a boiling-hot solution of bichromate of potash for one- 
half hour, using eight and one-half ounces of l)ichro- 
mate to the gallon of water. Or this: Boil twenty- 
five ounces of logwood extract in twelve and one-half 
pints of water containing one-fifth ounce of alum. 
Filter or strain the fluid, and steep the wicker in it 



114 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

for from two to six hours. Keep the liquid at the 
lx.Mhng point all the time, then remove the ware from 
the fluid and let it dry. Then steep it in a boiling-hot 
solution of iron sulphate fifteen ounces in seven and 
one-half pints of water for from two to four hours. 
This gives a more or less bluish-black with a gray 
cast, but by steeping it in a decoction of thirteen 
ounces of copper sulphate in one and one-fourth gal- 
lons of water a deeper black will result. 

The Aniline Colors or Dyes. — The aniline dyes 
are much more effective than the foregoing mineral 
and chemical colors, as the anilines need no steeping, 
they dyeing the wood at once. In fact, aniline stains 
may be applied with a brush or sponge. For very 
bripht colorincf the anilines must be chosen. The wood 
should be mordanted with a solution of six ounces of 
Castile or good white soap in twelve and one-half pints 
of water, soaking the wood in this, and then drying it 
before applying the coloring. Anilines soluble in water 
are to be used, the water warm, say from 86 deg. up to 
140 deg. Stir the liquid well, then steep the ware in it 
until you get the depth of color desired. As the dye 
liquor becomes weak it must be strengthened with 
freshly made dye solution. A very small amount of 
aniline will do. 

Blue. Dark Blue. — Dissolve three ounces of Ben- 
gal blue in three and one-half pints of boiling water, 
and stir and filter the fluid in ten minutes' time. 

Light Blue. — Dissolve three ounces of bleu de 
lumiere in one-half gallon of boiling water. 

Sky Blue. — Dissolve three oimces of bleu de ceil 
in one-half gallon of water. 

Greenish Blue. — Dissolve three ounces of bleu de 
vert in one-half gallon of boiling water. 

A^'arious. Dark Creen. — Dissolve three ounces of 



STAINING WICKERWARE 115 

methyl green and one-half ounce of bleu de lumiere 
in one-half gallon of hot water. Light green. Dissolve 
one ounce of methyl green in a pint of boiling water. 

Red. — Dissolve three ounces of coral red in five 
pints of water. Dark red, dissolve three ounces of 
fuchsine and one ounce of orange in three pints of 
water. Rose red : Dissolve three ounces of rose Ben- 
gal in five pints of water. 

Violet. — Dissolve three ounces of methyl violet 
in one-half gallon of water. 

Reddish Violet. — Dissolve three ounces of methyl 
violet and one ounce of fuchsine in one-half gallon of 
water. 

Golden Yellow. — Dissolve three ounces of naph- 
thaline yellow in one-half gallon of water. 

Brown. — Dissolve three ounces of Bismarck brown 
in one-half gallon of water. Chestnut Brown:' Dis- 
solve one ounce of maroon in one pint of water. 

The list given includes only a few of the many 
colors that may be used in wood staining, but those 
given afford some idea of what is possible along this 
line. The quantities of dye given in the formulas 
produce a very concentrated stain, and if more is used 
the result will be a bronzing of the colors. The for- 
mulas are for strong solutions, and they may be re- 
duced if too strong, using water. As the stains are 
used for successive dippings they become weaker, and 
must be strengthened from time to time with fresh dye. 

The dyed wickerware is finished with a coat of 
lacquer, made and used as follows : First dip the 
article in a thin size of glue or gelatin, which must 
be kept hot. This closes the pores of the ware and 
gives a good foundation for the lacquer. For white 
goods use white shellac, and for dark goods use a 
mixture of white and orange shellac. Some use copal 



116 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

varnish instead, but lacquer is better, as it is more 
flexible and less inclined to crack. For black work dark 
or orange shellac is used. 

Staining Willowware Furniture. — The stain 
will take more uniformly if the goods are mordanted 
with this preparation : Take nine ounces of chloride of 
lime and one ounce of soda crystals in five pints of 
water. Several coats of this mordant are required, and 
each coat must be dry before another is applied. Then 
apply a weak solution of sulphuric acid, and rinse at 
once with clear water. Let dry. Use alcohol aniline 
stain, as it penetrates better than either water or oil 
stain. But if water stain is used apply it hot. 

Experience is necessary to stain wickerware success- 
fully; hence if not successful at first, do not be dis- 
couraged, but try again. 



THE EQUIVALENTS OF WATER COLORS IN 
ANILINE DYES 



Water Colors 

Sap Green 
Emerald Green 
Scarlet 
Violet 

Burnt Sienna 
Ultramarine 
Sky Blue 
Lemon Yellow 
Golden Yellow 
Magenta 

Cadmium Orange 
Crimson Lake 



Aniline Colors 

Naphthol Green 

Emerald and Malachite Green 

Eosin and Biebrich Scarlet 

Methyl Violet and Gallein 

Bismarck Brown 

Cotton Blue, Alkali Blue 

Methylene Blue 

Picric Acid 

Naphthol Yellow 

Magenta 

Phosphine, Aurantig, 

Congo Red 



117 



DESCRIPTION OF STAINS AND THEIR USES 

There are three classes of stains used by the wood 
finisher, namely, Oil Soluble stains, commonly known 
as penetrating stains ; Pigment Oil stains, or pigments 
ground in oil; and Acid stains, more generally known 
as water stains, but erroneously, as will be explained 
further on. 

Oil Soluble Stain. — The average stain of this 
class is made from an oil-soluble aniline dye, the thin- 
ning fluids being turpentine, benzol, acetone, with japan 
driers. The factory-made stain is effected under heat. 
The peculiar feature of this stain consists in its power 
of deeply penetrating wood, without leaving pigment 
on the surface. The staining is effected without cloud- 
ing the grain of the wood, a most desirable accomplish- 
ment. The purpose of staining natural wood is to de- 
velop and enhance its beauty of figure and grain, where 
this is possible. But it is not always possible, as the 
result will depend upon the character of the wood itself. 
All woods will not take the same stains equally satis- 
factorily. Some woods have a close grain and small 
figure, while others are soft and porous and have a 
large grain. If the figure is small the grain should be 
brought out. But if the grain or figure is quite out- 
standing we then must subdue it and get a more uni- 
form effect. This can readily be done by the use of 
the proper stain and its application. 

The oil soluble stains come ready for use in the vari- 
ous favored colors or tones, being particularly adapted 
for staining Mission effects on oak, mahogany effects 
on birch, and walnut and mahoganv effects on gum; 

118 



DESCRIPTION OF STAINS AND THEIR USES 119 

they are also used on some of the softer woods, such 
as pine and cypress, where the grain is not too promi- 
nent. 

Great advance has been made within the past few 
years in the production of wood stains by American 
manufacturers. As late as 191 5 the American dyes 
were far below the quality of the German brands, but 
since that period the case seems to have been reversed, 
as our aniline dye manufacturers claim their wares to 
be superior to the German goods. They claim for 
American-made dye stains that they are smoother work- 
ing, they dissolve better, they leave no sediment, and 
they are more suitable for their purpose as stains. As 
to durability or resistance to light, while superior to the 
dyes we used to have, it must be admitted that they re- 
main to some, though less, extent unstable. The repre- 
sentative of the largest manufacturing concern in the 
country, speaking on the subject of mahogany penetrat- 
ing stain, admits that there is not a mahogany pene- 
trating stain on the market to-day (1921) that is abso- 
lutely fast to light, that will not fade. They will do 
very well under certain favorable conditions, but sub- 
ject a piece of wood, stained with oil soluble aniline 
stain, in a window, say, exposed to the sunlight an hour 
or more each day, the stain is sure to fade. 

There exists in some of the oil soluble stains, notably 
in the mahogany, what is generally known as the act 
of bleeding. In this they demonstrate their penetrating 
qualities better than in the matter of wood staining. 
It is usual to apply a coat of shellac after the staining, 
and as part of the stain is soluble in alcohol, and as 
shellac is thinned with that fluid, the result is that the 
stain is dissolved by the spirit and eats its way through 
the shellac to the surface, discoloring whatever finish 
may be on the wood. Painters and paper hangers have 
this difficulty to contend with, the former by reason 



120 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

of having to paint (enamel usually) over mahogany- 
stained woodwork, and the latter having to hang paper 
over other paper that has been printed with aniline dye. 
Expert painters declare that aniline mahogany stain 
will come up through as many as a dozen coats of paint, 
and do it after ten or more years from the application 
of the paint. This will show how penetrating and pow- 
erful it is. To meet the difficulty it is only necessary to 
coat it over with aluminum bronze. In one case the 
stain had not worked through in two and one-half 
years. Shellac will not keep the stain back. Iron pipes 
coated with gas tar offer a like proposition ; no amount 
of shellacking will keep back the tar stain. 

In order to make the mahogany or other oil soluble 
penetrating stain as fast to light as possible it should 
be coated with thin shellac varnish (more properly 
lacquer). This glaze coat should be tinted, as this 
gives a better finish than an untinted coating. And 
shellac is better than oil varnish over the stain, and 
indeed oil varnish should not in any case be applied 
over this stain, direct. 

It should be stated here that oil penetrating stain 
does not raise the grain of the wood, hence is more 
economical than water stains. 

Oil Stains. — In former years these stains were the 
only ones used, being followed by water stains, where 
the same pigments were used, as were also vegetable 
dyes and colors. And oil stains have a wide use to-day, 
being suited to some woods better than water or oil 
soluble stains. These stains are prepared from pig- 
ments that have been ground in raw linseed oil, and 
which are prepared for use in staining by thinning out 
with turpentine, or oil, or benzine, with some drying 
agent, japan usually. Or oil and turpentine or benzine 
may be used in combination, with japan dryer. The 
chief trouble with oil stain is that it is not fine enough, 



DESCRIPTION OF STAINS AND THEIR USES 121 

it will leave some pigment on the surface of the wood, 
and which to some extent obscures the grain of the 
wood. Oil stains are especially adapted for use on the 
close-grained woods, such as white pine, poplar, white- 
wood, maple and cherry. As these stains are not as 
penetrating as the anilines, they fail to bring out the 
figure of the wood satisfactorily. 

When cherry and maple were the favored woods oil 
stains were generally used, but since the advent of such 
favored woods as birch, gum, pine and cypress, which 
take all sorts of color tones, their use has greatly fallen 
off. Yet they have great merits in certain forms of 
wood finishing, some account of which may be found 
in this work under the proper heading. 

Acid Stains. — Some confusion exists in the minds 
of many finishers regarding the term acid. It may be 
explained that the acid stain is the modern water stain, 
but that it is entirely distinct from the old water stain. 
The latter was simply an aniline stain dissolved in 
water and thus applied. The modern water stain is a 
water stain of course, but the chemists have added 
some chemicals that result in a stain that will give 
effects not possible with the old water stains. It is only 
within the past two or three years that these im- 
proved stains have come into use, and were necessary to 
the doing of the type of staining now in use. People 
became tired of golden oak, red mahogany, etc. Such 
woods as gum, cypress and the like are in demand, 
together with the old-time woods, hard and soft. 
Necessity, from the near exhaustion of the old-time 
favorite woods, compels us to like such finishes as 
cypress and gum. Still, this class of woods has unde- 
niable merit. 

Tcr understand the adaptability of these modern 
woods to stains, woods such as cypress, redwood, yel- 
low pine, etc., procure a set of slats from some stain 



122 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

manufacturer, or the photo-colored illustrations there- 
of. They will show how well such woods can be 
treated with stains, even with the very lightest of 
color, even with white, producing the gray effects. To 
the stain manufacturer the wood-finisher owes much 
in the fund of practical information given, the results 
of tedious and costly tests. 

In order to obtain a uniform color effect on cer- 
tain woods it is necessary first to apply a thin size, 
usually of shellac, though a thin coating of a surfacer 
will do very well. One stain making firm call this coat 
the "evener." It simply prevents the stain from en- 
tering the wood, staining the "evener" instead. We 
have mentioned this method in another place. It is 
always used where it is desired to prevent penetration, 
and is often used on parts of a wood where the stain 
would produce an effect different from the rest of the 
surface. This evener is lightly sandpapered, then the 
stain is applied. It is possible to give the coat of evener 
and stain in the one day. That saves time and works 
for economy. The coating beneath the stain will do 
even better if a little of the stain is added to it. 

Furniture makers use that method, in the finishing 
room, to remedy unequal condition of wood ; that is 
to say, where there are hard and soft spots. 

To test stain for clearness apply some of it to a piece 
of glass and hold the glass against the light, which 
will reveal any opacity ; stain should be perfectly clear. 
Another way is to stain the glass and place under it a 
piece of printed paper; the clearness of the stain will 
be according to how easy or difficult it is to read the 
print; dark stain would of course hide the print too 
much to enable you to read it, at least easily. 

There will be no bleeding with alizarine red, which 
is the substitute for madder root. There are also non- 
bleeding crimson and maroon lakes. But the ordinary 



DESCRIPTION OF STAINS AND THEIR USES 123 

oil-soluble stains will be apt to bleed. Its fatty nature 
is the cause of its oozing through the shellac or var- 
nish coats. Pigment oil stain is safer, but does not 
give the lively effect that aniline stain does. It is more 
like a paint. Yet the anilines are not always satisfac- 
tory, and in many cases it is best to use the oil stains. 

The oil soluble aniline stains are, with a few excep- 
tions, light-proof when protected by varnish, as most 
of them are composed of alizarine, the most light-proof 
coal tar derivative known. It can be had in various 
types of black, brown, blue, green, orange, red, and 
yellow, all but the blue fairly permanent when used as 
an oil stain. 

There is on the market a celluloid lacquer that acts 
differently from shellac lacquer or oil varnish, in that, 
so it is claimed, the aniline dye will not come through 
it. If this is the finish over the stained work the color 
holds, it does not bleed through. That is the claim. 

Aniline water stains are made from water soluble ani- 
lines. Ask for these when wanting to make water 
stain. The formula for any of these water soluble 
stains is one-quarter pound of aniline to three gallons 
of hot water. The water should be boiling-hot, and 
the stain should not be used until cool ; the addition of 
three half-pints- of vinegar will improve the durability 
of the stain. 

To give to curly maple the golden brown or deep 
yellow effect, to look like the wood when mellowed by 
age, dissolve one-half pound of orange shellac, two 
ounces of pearlash and one ounce of gamboge in one- 
half gallon of denatured or wood alcohol. If you de- 
sire it deeper or more reddish, use in place of gambogq 
either all or part dragon's blood. This stain has one 
advantage over the alizarine stain, it will not raise the 
fiber of the wood and the shellac will aid to make it 
fairly permanent, improving in color with age. 



124 Till!: iiXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

To do uniform staining one should have a uniform 
li^ht, as the appearance, of stain changes with a chang- 
ing hght, showing a'deeper color tone as the light fades 
and growing paler as the light hecomes hrighter. The 
north side of a room is hetter.for staining, as the light 
here is more uniform, for one is not hothered by the 
direct rays of the sun nor the shadows: of passing 
clouds. 

Soluble Vandyke brown will furnish a very good 
walnut stain, but it is far more simple to purchase 
alizarine brown, extra deep, and dissolve it like Bis- 
marck brown in hot water. 

The first essential to successful staining is a clear, 
transparent stain. For oak, oil or acid stains are 
preferable, water stains being but seldom used. On 
walnut, oil stains may be used with fairly satisfactory 
results, although water stains make a nicer job. But 
when it comes to the staining of mahogany there is 
only one stain that can be recommended, and that is a 
water stain. 

The ])ro|)er application of stain, such as water, acid 
and spirit stain, is a matter of experience and efficiency. 

Tt must be done quickly, and one must avoid going 
over [)art of the surface a second time and must not use 
any touch ing-up methods. All parts of the wood must 
be covered with one stroke of the brush, if possible, 
and a good full bristle brush must be used. 

The idea that all stains are made from coal tar is 
not true. Tt is true, however, that many stains are 
made from coal tar products. For instance, those made 
from benzol, naphthol, phenol and alizarine. Still oth- 
ers are made from salicylic acid, rcsorcinc, tannin, etc. 
These substances are all chemicals and are treated with 
other chemicals to get the desired color. \ state this 
for the reason that manufacturers receive complaints 
that stains come through, and the customers think it 



DESCRIPTION OK STAINS AND TIM' IK' USRS 12S 

due to the action of the coal tar in the stain, when, as 
a matter of fact, no coal tar has been used. 

Very often the fault lies with the man who does the 
finishing. Oversaturation is harmful in staining wood- 
work. A piece of wood will absorb just so much liquid 
stain and no more. Woodwork that has too much 
stain, will always hurt the varnisli. I'o do satisfactory 
work all stained woodwork must be wiped, when nearly 
dry, so that if there is too much stain on the surface, 
the surplus will be removed. 

Oak is the wood most frequently stained with an oil 
stain, and, being very porous, it sometimes happens that 
the stain penetrates to a considerable depth and does not 
dry out thoroughly before the filler is. applied (if the 
wood is filled), and in time it begins to ooze out, some- 
times long after the varnish has been applied. A tur- 
pentine stain will rarely do this, but a stain whose body 
is asphaltum varnish or oil has not the ])cnetrating 
qualities of a. tur])cntine stain, and, therefore, finds 
lodgment in the larger pores and does not dry. This 
difficulty is frequently experienced with end wood. 
To avoid the trouble above mentioned it would be well 
to apply the stain- with a cloth, as in this way it can be 
spread out more quickly and uniformly than with a 
brush, and by so doing tlie stain will be prevented from 
penetrating to an unnecessary depth. 

if one has trouble with the* stain cleaning off too 
much or fading under the process of filling, the trouble 
may be avoided by applying to wood a coat of very thin 
shellac. I\it this on after the stain is dry, and allow it 
about half an hour to dry before filling. This thin coat 
will also make a wonderful improvement in the sur- 
face for finishing if san(l])apere(l lightly with fine paper, 
after the filler has become dry and before any addi- 
tional coats are applied. 

It is not always practicable to stain moldings with a 



126 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

cloth. The same may be said about getting into cor- 
ners. For this purpose use a fine brush, such as bear 
or camel-hair, as a bristle brush is too coarse and loose 
and releases the stain too rapidly. 

Cuban Mahogany. — One frequently has some 
Cuban mahogany to stain and match African mahog- 
any, and sometimes crotch. Cuban mahogany, being 
much harder and stronger than' most other varieties, is 
used extensively in making chairs which call for 
genuine mahogany, and which must be stained to match 
the other pieces of the suite to which they belong. If 
the chairs were to match a crotch dining-room suite 
it would not be expected that the chair frames match 
the figure of the crotch, but it is expected that the color 
tone be in harmony, and the whole stained sufficiently 
dark to prevent a contrast. The dark figure in the 
crotch makes it necessary to* bring the color of the 
chairs to about midway between the light and the dark 
parts to produce the desired degree of harmony. 

It is much easier to stain Cuban mahogany to match 
African stripe mahogany than it is to make it match 
crotch, for all that is required is to use the stain about 
50 per cent, stronger. Cuban mahogany can also be 
made to match African mahogany in figure without any 
great difficulty. To do this, first prepare a stain double 
the strength of that used on the African mahogany. 
Next, stain the Cuban mahogany with the same stain 
as used on the African mahogany, and, while this stain 
is yet wet, put stripes on it with the dark stain, using 
a small camel-hair pencil brush for the purpose. If the 
dark stain is applied before the first stain gets too dry 
it will flow out beautifully, and nothing less than a very 
close examination by the most expert can detect that 
they are not natural, and by following the grain closely 
I have deceived experts. Of course, one does not want 



DESCRIPTION OF STAINS AND THEIR USES U7 

very much of this striping on a chair frame, but just 
enough to reheve the striking plainness. 

The same thing may be done with gum and birch 
that is used along with figured mahogany. It some- 
times happens that a block of solid mahogany without 
figure will find its way into a piece of furniture, and 
this, too, can be touched up and made to match. 

The finisher should make it his business to watch 
closely the joints of all crotch mahogany, Circassian 
walnut and other butt-joint work, to see if all the mark- 
tings match. It may be that in cleaning up the veneer 
some of the markings running close to the surface are 
removed, or the matcher had not got all the figures in 
correct alignment, and if these things are not remedied 
they will present a very bad appearance after the finish 
is applied. By the use of stain and a pencil brush these 
figures can be drawn out and enlarged or new figures 
added to replace those lost in the cleaning, until the 
whole is perfectly matched. Or if one wishes to in- 
crease the depth of color of some of the marks it may 
be done in this way. The kind of stain to be used de- 
pends on the color of the veneer to be touched up and 
the color* of the stripes to be enlarged. Mahogany can 
usually be touched up with a mahogany stain, soluble 
in either water or spirits, while Circassian walnut and 
other walnut butt-joint work may require walnut crys- 
tals and nigrosine. Oil colors may also be used at 
times, but where colors soluble in water or alcohol will 
answer they are usually preferable. 



THE ART OF WOOD POLISHING 

French Polishing. — This old and little employed 
form of wood polishing consists in the repeated rub- 
bing into the wood of shellac, using a rubber or pad 
that has been slightly coated with boiled linseed oil, 
which makes the rubbing easier. Wood that is not 
perfectly straight-grained, clear and solid, should first 
be sized with thin glue size, and then when the size is 
dry lightly smooth it with fine sandpaper. A modern 
method indicates a filler made with plaster of Paris and 
water, colored to suit, removing all surplus filler, which 
will render sandpapering a simpler task. Other fillers 
may be used, but most prefer the plaster filler. But 
the original method of polishing did not call for a wood 
filler, the shellac being rubbed into the grain of the 
wood until a surface was made. This surface was 
then made smooth with a soft polish. Orange shellac 
is used for this purpose. As shellac is affected by both 
cold and dampness it is best to have a temperature of 
about 72 deg. where the work is being done. At least 
the temperature should not be very much lower than 
this. 

The rubber used can be made from a strip of woolen 
cloth, one inch in width, and which is to be rolled up 
like tape. Over this draw a piece of clean, soft muslin, 
the edges drawn up on one side of the rubber and tied 
there, forming a handle. This rubber is intended for 
rubbing flat surfaces. For irregular surfaces make a 
rubber from raw cotton wool, tied in a piece of muslin, 
with a handle on one side, like the flat rubber. The 

128 



THE ART OF WOOD POLISHING 129 

rubbers must be perfectly smooth on the rubbing side, 
having neither crease nor wrinkle. 

Having your rubbers ready, and being ready to 
begin work, remove the outer wrapping of the rubber 
and apply a few drops of shellac on its face; be care- 
ful not to get too much on, but just enough so that 
when the pad is lightly pressed a little of the shellac will 
exude. Too much shellac will cause a rough surface, 
spoiling the work. The process demands care and skill. 

Having applied a few drops of shellac to the inner 
rubber replace the outer covering, tie it, to form the 
little handle, and then apply a few drops of raw linseed 
oil to its face. Begin at a certain part of the work, rub 
evenly and with light pressure, working in a circular 
manner until, gradually, you come to the opposite part 
of the work; now and then apply a drop of oil to the 
rubber. Once you start rubbing keep the rubber in 
motion until, you reach the opposite part of the work, 
otherwise you will leave a ridge or other form of un- 
evenness, to remove which will involve considerable 
time and labor. This is very important. Don't let the 
rubber become dry as you proceed, but watch it and 
whenever it gets a little like drying place a drop or two 
of oil on it, with a little shellac on the inner rag. 

After rubbing in several coats, and a soft luster ap- 
pears, a dry rubber can do no harm. In fact, at that 
point a dry rubber is desirable. 

Every time that you apply shellac to the pad squeeze 
a little of it out on to the palm of the hand, working 
the pad a little in it, this equalizing the shellac in the 
pad. Should the muslin covering the pad become shiny 
shift it and use a fresh part. 

Should you be unfortunate enough to have rubber 
marks appear on the surface of your work remove them 
by rubbing with the wet rubber, but beginning at the 
point that you left off at and working in the opposite 



130 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

direction. In all cases it is advisable to employ long 
strokes with the rubber, rather than short, jerky 
strokes. Some finishers rub lengthwise of the work, 
then in a circular direction. Do not press too hard 
on the rubber, nor rub too long in one place. Place 
the shellac in a saucer, for convenience when rubbing, 
though a bottle is better. Rub out dry marks with a 
half-dry rubber, bearing on with a little more pressure 
than when first rubbing. 

If you have a large surface to polish, like a table 
top, polish but one-half of it at a time. Leaves or 
boards of tables may be done one at a time. 

After rubbing the broad surface with the circular 
motion, go over it again, rubbing with the grain of the 
wood. Rub a few times only, the purpose being simply 
to remove the rubber marks of the first rubbing. In the 
beginning rub with very light pressure, increasing the 
pressure as the rubber becomes drier. When the polish 
looks rough or scratched smooth it gently with fine 
sandpaper, and be sure that the polish is quite hard be- 
fore you do this. Do not try to remove this roughness 
b}^ hard rubbing nor by excess of rubbing in one place. 
The latter operation will result in the softening the 
whole body of the polish, causing it either to rub up or 
rub into ridges. If there is too much shellac on the 
rubber the alcohol in it will mar the polish. If the 
room is too cold or damp you will likely get a milky 
surface, to remedy which take the work near a fire, 
and the heat will gradually restore the polish. 

Give the work but one coat of polish a day, but rub 
in coats enough to form a film of shellac on the sur- 
face of the work, proving that the pores of the wood 
have been filled. If then the job presents a perfectly 
uniform surface it may be "spirited off," which is done 
with the rubber and some alcohol. Dampen the rub- 



THE ART OF WOOD POLISHING 131 

ber with alcohol and pass it lightly and deftly over the 
surface of the poHshed work, using the alcohol spar- 
ingly. The alcohol removes the oil left on the polish, 
leaving the polish bright and handsome. If this were 
not done then the oil would remain to dim the polish. 
But as it is very easy to do injury to the polish with 
the alcohol, care must be exercised in its use. Some 
finishers use alcohol from the start, gradually reducing 
the amount until the last coat is mainly clear alcohol. 

For spiriting-off use a new pad or rubber, three or 
four folds of muslin over a wad of raw cotton; some 
prefer cheese-cloth to raw cotton. These coverings may 
be removed one by one, as they become dry, the inner 
pad holding the alcohol. Rub in a circular way. 

It is thought by some workmen that it helps the 
alcohol to stand exposed to the air for an hour or two. 
The only effect such exposure could have would be 
to weaken it by its absorbing moisture from the air, 
alcohol being a greedy partaker of water; hence the 
addition of a little water should be equally as good as 
the exposure. The purpose of a weaker alcohol is to 
guard the workman from injuring the polish. 

To save the time, trouble and risk involved in the 
spiriting off process some polishers give a glaze to the 
finish, which forces a gloss or polish, making the re- 
moval of the oil unnecessary. The glaze is made from 
gum benzoin dissolved in alcohol. Take one-half pint 
of strong alcohol and dissolve in it two drams each 
of gum shellac and gum benzoin. Place in a bottle and 
shake occasionally. Stopper tight. When the gums 
have dissolved add two teaspoonfuls of white poppy- 
seed oil, shake well, and the mixture is ready. As 
previously stated, this is a glaze, and is so applied. 

For very light colored woods use white shellac, 
which may then be colored to suit any color of wood in 



132 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

hand; but orange shellac is commonly used in French 
polishing. 

A cheap method of French polishing black work may 
be done by the following formula : Beat to a paste 
some Japan drop black, then add to it, at the rate 
of a tablespoonful to the half-pint of black, rubbing- 
varnish; mix thoroughly, then thin out with turpen- 
tine or benzine. Apply several coats of this black, 
drying each coat, and lightly sandpapering to a smooth 
surface. A\'hen all is done and dry apply a coat of good 
furniture varnish, which rub to a polish with pulver- 
ized rottenstone and sweet oil. 

Since the appearance of the second edition of this 
work I have been given another method of cheap or 
easy French polishing, the donor, residing in Canada, 
stating that he has used it for many years, that it will 
do the work in a saving of seven-eighths time, that the 
work will be as good as the real French polishing, and 
that it will stand out better than any polish that has 
ever been placed on the market. Which is claiming 
much. He says : 

'Till and stain your woodwork, put on one coat of 
shellac and two coats of good rubbing varnish; sand- 
paper in between coats, and rub the last coat to a dead 
finish with pumicestone and water. Now you are 
ready for the polish. Take one ounce of muriatic 
acid, one ounce of turpentine, one pint of raw oil. 
mix together. Take about one-eighth of a pound of 
waste ; fill it wnth the above polish so that your waste 
is moist. Now take a piece of cheese-cloth dipped in 
water. Put it around the w^aste so it forms a ball. 
Put a little rottenstone on it and go to it. You v.ill 
find that it will polish instantly. The more you rub, the 
higher the polish. After you have your woodwork or 
doors polished, take a piece of cheese-cloth, dampen it 
with 2:rain alcohol, and rub the oil off." 



THE ART OF WOOD POLISHING 133 

Oil Polishing. — Oil polish is especially useful on 
wooden surfaces that are to be subjected to more than 
ordinary hard usage, or exposure to the weather. It 
is a very ancient method of wood finishing, antedating 
French polishing by many years, and is even older than 
varnishing. The proper method requires that the bare 
wood be saturated and filled full with linseed oil, the 
surface being then rubbed as will be described further 
on. Water has no efTect, generally speaking, on such a 
filled surface, and while certain liquids and hot dishes 
will mar the surface, these blemishes are easily rem- 
edied. Such is not the case with shellacked or var- 
nished surfaces. Hence the desirability of oil-finished 
surfaces for bar tops, tables, and so on. 

Any kind of wood when oil finished will darken with 
age, whether filled with special filler, or simply oil- 
filled, though the former will not darken so soon as the 
other. This is well to know, because you may at some 
time have to oil-finish a part to match an old part, and 
allowance will have to be made for this darkening of 
the new finish. 

Not all kinds of wood are oil-polished, the soft 
woods being ill-adapted for this form of finish. Such 
woods as beech, chestnut, mahogany and oak, and other 
like woods, lend themselves to this form of treatment. 

It is not advised to fill the wood, and it is only done 
when it is desired to save time and labor. Oil polish 
does not look as w'ell on a filled wood as on that which 
has been treated with oil only. All mineral-based and 
animal oils must be discarded, and only vegetable oils 
be used. Linseed oil is the best and most generally 
used. Raw linseed oil is not used. The oil should be 
kettle-boiled, manganese boiled oil being the best of 
this class. Raw oil does not furnish sufficient body, 
and it also dries soft and tacky, remaining so for some 
time, and it tends to soften up under the repeated 



134 TFFI'. IXri'.RT VVODH t'lNlSHI'.R 

applic.illons necessary in this form (^f finish. Ob- 
viously, no sonnd, dnral^lc finish conld possibly be 
ubt.'iined with raw oil. 

To effect a perfect job of oil polishinj:^ the wood 
must be ])crfcclly smooth. Saltn*a1c the wood with 
the oil, and rnb down with brick or lump pniniccstone, 
preferably, though line sandpaper or slcel wool will 
do. TUh will j^Hve yon a ])erfertly smooth surface, and 
all surplus oil must be vvi])ed o(T before the polish sets 
or dries. 

niie ])olisliinj;" is then done. This consists in ap])ly- 
]}\y; liie oil and rubbini;' it into the wood with a ])iece 
of fell. Apply <»ne coat only, and lei this st;m(l sev- 
eral days, so that the midercoatin^; may have time to 
dry, and so that the succeeding- coat may adhere se- 
curely to the siu'face coat. After each application and 
rubbin<^ wipe off the surplus oil with a clenn r'd^, soft 
\,oolen the best. The more time you allow for each 
coat to dry before applyini.'^ the next the better the 
hnish will be. 

When you have secured a proper surface with these 
re])eate(l a])])lications, rub it with the follovvinu^ ])repa- 
ration: ()ne (piait of kettle-boiled linseed oil, one or 
two trills of .'dcohol, one to two [;ills of turi)enline, and 
one (|uarl of stronj^f vine^^'ir; it will improve this com- 
position by addin;-; a terispoonfnl of butler of anti- 
mony. Shake this all to;',('lh('r until perfect amal^ama- 
lioii occurs. I\ub the oil-linished surface briskly with 
a soft woolen ratf, wet in the li(|uid. 

The hijdi polish obtained by this method will not 
crack, peel, scale or check, and it is not affected by 
water or ordinary nsaf.^e. It is the most durable form 
of wood finish. 1 am speakini'^ now of the formula just 
t^nven ; it does also on a varnished fuiish, improving;- its 
a])pearance. Ft will be found satisfactory, too, on the 
finest i)iano. 



THE ART OF WOOD POLISHING 135 

Polish-on-Varnisii Finish. — This is the Gernian 
acid method of poHsh finish, and it consists in body- 
ing up the work with copal varnish, instead of shellac. 
This process, which will now he ^loscribod in detail. 
was called the "vitriol finish." 

There is a very evident diCt'erence oi ajipearance 
in the cabinet and fnrnitnre work tnrned mit by for- 
eign niannl'actnrers, ni>t only so as regards design and 
constrnction, bnt the I'lnish also. Perhaps this is dnc 
to climatic conditions or intlnences. jxirtly so at least. 
From this canse alone a tinish that gives excellent 
wearing resnlts in one \x\vt of the world m;iy fail 
ntterly in another. 

The finish on luiglish cabinet and fnrnitme goods 
and that on the 1^^-ench are very nearly alike, becanse 
Fngland. more than any oihcv ccnnilry perha|)s, 
adopted the blench style of finish. b\>r a long time 
the Gernian mannfactnrers also nsed the same method, 
with this difference: That on high-class goods that 
wonld stanil the ci>st of labor, they nseil pcnvdered 
pnmicestone liberally in the early stages of the work, 
thereby obtaining a perfectly level tinish, mnch thinner 
in body than that seen on iMiglish-maile goi)ds. And 
as they had the advantage oi nsing a mnch pnrer spirit 
for dissolving the gnms one might reasonably snpposc 
that their work wiudd be vastly snperior as regards 
wearing qnalities, as well as excellence o\' workman- 
ship. That this was not so is dne not so mnch to the 
method of its a])plication. for no donbt these three 
conntries adopted practically the same method and 
approximately the same class of materials. 

Unfortnnately. in the distribntion o{ the polish solu- 
tion — as made from shellac and, in sc^ne cases, a small 
percentage oi other gnms. dissolved in alcohol — it is 
necessary to nse a small ((uantity of o\\, to aid in its 
even distribution and easy working, and it is this use 



.136 THE EXPERT VVOOD FINISHER 

of oil before applying the polish, and with it, that 
causes trouble. There is always a tendency on the 
part of workmen to use oil too freel}'. 

Some gimis work more sticky than others, and 
while one brand of spirit may work very mild, and 
not require much oil to assist in the work, another 
brand may work up hot or dry too quickly to per- 
mit the work to clear out bright without using an 
excess of oil. Recognizing this, some workmen use 
poppy oil instead of linseed oil, and with a decided 
advantage. But no matter what kind of oil may be 
used, it often happens that there is enough left be- 
hind, either lying imderneath the polish or incorpo- 
rated with it, that in time works out to the surface, 
causing sweating of the finish. Usually in working its 
way out it breaks up the film of shellac into a cob- 
webby form and presents a cracked appearance, which, 
if not cleared away at once, becomes hard, in the 
form of minute ridges, to which dust clings and 
dusters drag when cleaning off the surface is 
attempted. 

While the oil is thus oozing out the same atmospheric 
influences that caused it often cause another trouble. 
It only requires a slight heat that is prolonged for a 
few days to soften up the shellac used as a polish. As 
it softens up again it sinks into the Avood, on some 
woods to the extent of forcing the grain-filler out, 
thereby giving the work an unfinished appearance, as 
if the work had not been completed, or had not been 
skillfully done. This is especially noticeable in goods 
faced with thin veneer. 

Even by the use of a superior grade of alcohol the 
German finishers were not free from these difficulties, 
but they were the first to seek out some means whereby 
the action of the oil might be prevented. This was to 
a great extent accomplished by what was called the 



THE ART OF WOOD POLISHING 137 

vitriol finish. This, in its way, was a grand achieve- 
ment, but it only did half what was required; it made 
no provision for the sinking-in and loss of gloss 
caused by a heat wave, or the overheating of rooms 
by gas or fires, nor did it prevent the perishing of 
shellac polish likely to be caused by excessive damp- 
ness. Recognizing this, the Germans went one step 
farther, and on high-class goods abandoned the shellac 
finish in favor of one brought up by successive coat- 
ings of copal varnish, each coat allowed to become per- 
fectly hard, so that it could be ground down to a dead 
level with felt pads, powdered pumicestone and water. 
When this had been done some four or five times 
French polishing, in the strict sense of the term, began, 
the dull surface being worked upon with a polish made 
from bleached shellac, using a trifle more oil than in 
the usual practice when the whole of the work is being 
done with French polish. Thus we have what is some- 
times called a "polish on varnish." 

There is, however, this difference : The application 
of polish is not carried out to its fullest extent ; that is, 
the final luster is not brought up by means of spirits 
only. The polishing is proceeded with to a stage when 
it is just ready for clearing out the oil and bringing 
up the luster with spirits. Instead of using this, the 
work is pounced rather liberally with precipitated 
chalk. Then, having a suitable vessel at hand and 
containing diluted sulphuric acid, one part to ten of 
water, the workman dips the palm of his perfectly 
clean hand into the acid water and with it proceeds to 
rub the chalk with a circular movement, applying 
enough acid water to form the chalk into a creamy 
paste, then continues with the rubbing, using his finger- 
tips to get into the corners and moldings, until the 
chalk dries to a fine powder again. The efTect of this 
is that the final luster is brought up by what may be 



138 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

termed "hand polishing"; the acid has the effect of 
hardening the polish film of shellac, while the chalk 
brings away any oil that may be on the surface, and 
also acts as a polisher. 

Those who may hesitate about using the bare hand 
in the acid water can substitute a soft chamois skin. 

From the description given it will be readily seen 
that the main principle of this process lies in the fact 
that only a small proportion of shellac likely to soften 
up is used, and the successive applications of varnish 
build up a surface first, which prevents the possibility 
of any oil sinking into the wood to cause sweating- 
out. It has also brought about a revolution in the 
method of imparting color or staining. All this must 
be done before varnish is applied, otherwise it would 
rub off again, especially along the edges when rubbing 
down with pumicestone; while if color is used in the 
French polish on top of the varnish it may soon be 
found that the acid has a bleaching action on aniline 
dye colors unless the acid is cleared off extremely dry. 

Polish Formula 

Varnish Polish. — Shake together well the follow- 
ing ingredients: One quart of boiled linseed oil, one 
quart of turpentine, one quart of strong vinegar, one- 
fourth pint of alcohol, and one ounce of butter of anti- 
mony. Place in stoppered bottle. 

This is the polish so highly recommended under the 
head of French Polishing, near the end of that article. 
It is an excellent all-round polish. 

Polish for Turners' Work.— Make a paste with 
pure beeswax and turpentine, and in another vessel 
dissolve one ounce of sandarach in one-half pint of 
alcohol, which add very gradually to the wax by 
stirring. Apply this with a soft woolen rag to the 



THE ART OF WOOD POLISHING 139 

object as it turns in the lathe, using a dry, soft, old 
linen rag to polish with. 

Water-Resisting Polish. — Place in a bottle one 
pint of alcohol, two ounces of gum benzoin, one- 
quarter ounce of gum sandarach, and one-quarter 
ounce of gum anime. Stopper the bottle and place it 
in hot water, or hot sand bath. Then add about one- 
fourth gill of the best clear poppy oil; shake w^ell and 
then put away for use. 

Ebony Polish. — Add one-quarter ounce of the best 
pow^dered ivory drop black in one-half gill of shellac 
varnish. Use a drop or two of the black polish on 
the inside pad of the rubber, in which case use two 
muslin covers on the pad. 

Polish for Fine Cabinet Work. — Mix together 
and shake w^ell four ounces each of alcohol, strong 
vinegar, and turpentine, sixteen ounces of raw linseed 
oil and one ounce of butter of antimony. 

Polish for Dark Woodwork. — Finely pulverize 
one dram of gum elemi and one-half ounce of gum 
shellac, and place these gums in a bottle; add tw^o and 
one-half ounces of alcohol, and one dram of almond 
oil ; when dissolved it will be ready to use. 

Or, orange shellac two ounces, alcohol one-half 
pint, and benzoin two drams. Mix and keep in a well- 
stoppered bottle, shake occasionally to prevent settling, 
and keep in a warm place for one week. To use, first 
saturate the wood with boiled linseed oil, rubbing it 
well into the wood, after which wipe dry with a clean 
muslin rag, then rub to a polish in the French polish 
manner. 

Polish for Carved Work. — In one pint of alcohol 
dissolve two ounces each of shellac and white rosin. 
Carved parts and pillars of cabinet work must first 
be coated with copal varnish, which when dry is rubbed 
with fine sandpaper, to get a smooth surface. Then 



140 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

apply the polish, using a bristle brush to get into the 
carved places and standards. Better results follow if 
the polish and object in hand are both warm; at least 
the polish should be warm. 

Polishing Walnut.— ^Taking black walnut wood, 
first make it smooth and clean, and apply the polish to 
the raw wood ; the finish will give all the appearance 
of rich old walnut. First apply a very thin coat of 
brown shellac, and at once rub with a piece of smooth 
fine-grained pumicestone until dry. Then apply an- 
other coat of shellac and rub as before. Now it is 
ready for the polish, which is prepared as follows : 
Mix together raw linseed oil and turpentine, equal 
parts, and beeswax enough to rnake a paste ; apply with 
a rubber. If the surface of the wood is not smooth 
enough after rubbing with shellac and pumicestone 
rub it with fine sandpaper until smooth, then rub 
again with the polish. 

Polish for Hardwood. — This formula is rather 
for cleaning up new furniture, etc., after reaching the 
place of installation, and also for old work of the 
same character. Crude petroleum oil is very good for 
this purpose and is often used by experts when setting 
up new pews, furniture, etc., but the addition of a 
gill of alcohol to the pint of oil will improve it. 

Polish for Papier-Mache. — The polish used on 
fine cabinet work (which see) may be used on papier- 
mache work; apply it with a woolen rubber, using a 
gentle pressure until the desired polish appears. 

White Polish for Light Woods. — Dissolve six 
ounces of white shellac in one quart of alcohol, and 
add two ounces of white gum benzoin and one ounce 
of gum sandarach. 

Useful Polish for Dark Furniture. — To one 
pint of raw linseed oil add one ounce each of rose 
pink and alkanet root, beaten up in a mortar. Allow 



THE ART OF WOOD POLISHING 141 

the mixture to stand two days, then pour off the oil, 
which will form a rich liquid polish. 

Piano Polishes. — Raw linseed oil thirty-two 
ounces, butter of antimony two ounces, and eight 
ounces each of acetic acid, diluted, turpentine and alco- 
hol. Strong vinegar will do in place of the acetic acid. 

Twenty ounces of raw linseed oil, two ounces of 
dilute acetic acid, eight ounces of solution of am- 
monium chloride (sal ammoniac), and one-half ounce 
of spirits of camphor. First add to the oil the sal 
ammoniac solution, then idd the camphor and acid, 
finally adding two ounces of alcohol. Shake well 
after each addition. 

Alcohol ten ounces, r^w linseed oil ten ounces, di- 
lute acetic oil or strong vinegar five ounces, nitric 
acid four ounces; mix and shake until the ingredients 
are formed into a liquid polish. 

Polishing in the Lathe. — There are several 
kinds of polish used by turners in polishing wood- 
work on the lathe, and each workman will be found 
with his favorite way. The following formulas em- 
brace all the best polishes for work on the lathe that 
we know of. 

Take thin shellaC varnish and moisten a piece of 
rag, and lay it over a single thickness of linen or mus- 
lin, placing a drop of raw linseed oil on the latter. 
The oil retards evaporation of alcohol from the shellac 
and cloth, gives more time' for the work, and makes a 
smoother finish, there being less friction with the grain 
of the wood. Use either brown or white shellac var- 
nish, as may be required by the color of the wood. 
Begin the work by adjusting the lathe for low speed. 

Another way: Having the lathe adjusted for low- 
speed, prepare the polish from one-half pint of shellac 
varnish, one-fourth pint of alcohol, and one table- 
spoonful of raw linseed oil ; apply this with a camel 



142 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

hair brush about an inch wide. Move an alcohol blazer 
to the wood, do not set it too close, and move it quickly. 
Wet a wad of cotton with a few drops of raw linseed 
oil and apply it to the wood lightly, as it revolves; 
repeat until you have the desired degree of polish. 

The third way: Take six ounces of gum sandarach, 
three ounces of gum mastic drops, and six ounces of 
best orange shellac, and pulverize ; place the gums in a 
bottle with six ounces of alcohol and shake occasion- 
ally until all the gums are dissolved. 

For white or very light wood the polish may be 
made from white shellac gum eight ounces, gum ben- 
zoin one one-quarter ounces, and the same of gum 
sandarach; dissolve in two quarts of alcohol. Place 
in a bottle and shake until dissolved. 

Some rub oil into the wood thoroughly with a wad 
of cotton before the polishing, removing surplus oil 
with another cotton pad or rag. A good way is tO' 
moisten the rag with some oil, and taking it by its 
two ends, hold the oiled part against the revolving 
work, going from end to end until all parts of the 
object have been well oiled. This may be done until 
the surface presents a good appearance. 

Shred one ounce of genuine beeswax and mix it 
with turpentine, enough to form a stiff paste. Dis- 
solve one ounce of gum sandarach in one-half pint of 
alcohol; add this very gradually to the wax by stir- 
ring. Apply with a soft woolen rag to the object as 
it turns in the lathe. Polish with a piece of soft old 
linen. This will give a very high polish. 

Vcrious Polish Formulas 

Polish to Stand Water. — Place in a stoppered 
bottle one pint of alcohol, two ounces of gum benzoin, 
one-quarter ounce of gum sandarach, and one-quarter 



THE ART OF WOOD POLISHING 143 

ounce of gum anime. Dissolve by placing bottle in 
hot water or in a sand bath. Then add about a quar- 
ter gill of pure clear poppy oil; shake well, then put 
away for use, well corked. 

Ebony Polish. — Add one-fourth ounce of best dry 
ivory drop black to about one-half gill of shellac var- 
nish. Use a drop or two of this black polish on the 
inside pad of the rubber. In this case use two muslin 
covers over the pad. 

Polish for Fine Cabinet Work. — Mix together 
and shake well four ounces each of alcohol, vinegar, 
and turpentine, sixteen ounces of raw linseed oil, and 
one ounce of butter of antimony. 

Polish for Dark Woodwork. — Pulverize one 
dram of gum elemi and one-half ounce of gum shellac ; 
dissolve in a mixture of two and one-half ounces of 
90 per cent, alcohol and one dram of almond oil; place 
in a bottle, shake, and when dissolved it is ready for 
use. 

Here is another formula : Two ounces of orange 
shellac, one-half pint of alcohol, and two drams of 
gum benzoin ; mix and place in a stoppered bottle, and 
keep in a warm place for a week, shaking now and 
then to prevent settling. To use this polish, first rub 
the wood well with raw linseed oil, then remove the 
excess oil with a fresh rag, and proceed to polish in 
the usual manner, French polishing being best. 

Polish for Dark Wood Furniture. — To one pint 
of pure raw linseed oil add one ounce each of rose 
pink and alkanet root, beaten up in a mortar; allow 
the mixture to stand two days, then pour off the clear 
oil, which will form a rich liquid polish. 

Polish for Carved WoRK=-=In one pint of 90 per 
cent, alcohol dissolve two ounces each of seed lac and 
white rosin. Carved parts and pillars of cabinet 
work must first be coated with copal varnish, which 



144 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

is then made smooth with fine sandpaper; after which 
the polish may be appHed. Use a hog bristle brush for 
applying the polish to the carved parts and standards. 
Better results follow if the polish and woodwork are 
both warm when the polishing is being done. At any 
rate, the polish should be warm. 

Varnish Polish. — For polishing work finished 
with hard varnish. Boiled oil one pint, turpentine one 
pint, strong vinegar three-quarters of one pint, grain 
alcohol one-half pint, and butter of antimony one-half 
ounce; place in bottle and shake w^ell. This is a re- 
viver or renovator rather than a polish, though it does 
give the work a polish. 

Polish for White and Light Woods. — Dissolve 
six ounces of white shellac in one quart of alcohol, 
and add two ounces of white gum benzoin and one 
ounce of gum sandarach. Dissolve in the usual way. 



FINISHING NEW FURNITURE 

Furniture finishing is divided into three forms, 
the flowed-on or gloss finish, the rubbed finish, and 
the poHshed finish. These for high-grade work. 

The Gloss Finish. — The wood is well filled with 
paste filler and bodied-up with varnish, giving a sur- 
face as level and smooth as a sheet of plate glass. The 
rubbing is done with pulverized pumicestone and 
water. Oil rubbing is not done on this kind of finish, 
for it would not give the proper surface for a high- 
gloss finish. The varnish is flowed on and it is allowed 
to stand until dry. 

The Rubbed Finish. — There is more than one way 
to do this. Several coats of varnish are applied, with 
time for each coat to dry; each coat is rubbed with 
pumicestone powder and oil to remove the gloss and 
finally to form a good surface. The finer the pumice- 
stone the finer the finish, which will be a dead or 
lusterless effect. 

The Polished Finish. — The surface is prepared as 
described in the first process, and then it is rubbed with 
the finest pumicestone powder and water, as water 
cuts faster than oil and is easier to clean up. When 
oil is used grit gets into corners and crevices and is 
very difficult to remove. Not so with water. After 
rubbing and cleaning-up the surface is rubbed with 
powdered rottenstone and water, which removes the 
fine scratches made by the pumJcestone rubbing. It 
is the custom in the best finishing rooms to take some 
polish and waste and rub the surface briskly, which 
causes a slight polish to appear. Then a large piece of 

145 



146 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

muslin is made wet with water and is then wrung out, 
then it is dampened with a Httle alcohol and the work 
is spirited-off. This removes every vestige of cloudi- 
ness left by the polish. The best rubbing pad is the 
human hand. This kind of polishing is done on the 
best grades of furniture, pianos, etc. Place a little 
polish in the palm of the hand and rub the surface 
of the work with a circular movement. It of course 
requires a skilled workman to do this right, but the 
effect is an entire removal of every mark left from 
the former rubbings. 

Rubbing requires considerable skill, born of experi- 
ence, and no description of the process will suffice to 
enable a layman to do expert work, but it will show 
him how it is done, and he can practice. The varnish 
must not be rubbed too much or you will cut through 
the first coat and ruin the job. The varnish will 
''sweat" if you rub too close, though most likely the 
varnish, not the careless or unskilled workman, will 
be blamed for it. Should this occur, then wait a day 
or two before rubbing to a finish. If oil is permitted 
to remain on the work too long it will soften the var- 
nish, which will rub off in spots, especially if the 
rubbing is done with oil. Allow two days at least for 
drying before rubbing. Three days is better. Try 
the surface with the finger-nail; if the varnish dents 
easily it is too soft for rubbing. If you decide to rub 
with oil, w^ork rapidly and don't let the oil remain on 
the work longer than necessary. Some finishers prefer 
crude oil, and others use coal oil. In any case, the 
work must be cleaned up with benzine and rag. Then 
wipe dry with a clean rag. Some think that coal oil 
cuts faster than water. 

Never rub across the grain of the wood, for that 
will cause scratching. Don't bear on heavily, either 
at start or finish, or you will get the ends worn smooth ; 



FINISHING NEW FURNITURE 147 

bear on gently and with even pressure all the way 
through. Never rub until the varnish is perfectly dry; 
it will cause sweating when you come to rub again. 

Stained work should always be rubbed the way of 
the grain, never across it nor in a circular manner. 
That will cause the marks to show at the finish. This 
is particularly true as regards water-stained work. If 
the filler has been stained to match the wood that will 
help to make the work look solid. 

The beginner may think that the more pumicestone 
he uses the faster his rubbing will cut, but that is not 
so, as he will discover. The proper way is to use very 
little pumice on your rubber. Rub in a circular manner 
and evenly, from one end to the other, and once in a 
while try the surface with the thumb, to note progress 
of the work, 

A felt pad, three by five inches, may be used for 
rubbing with, but for irregular surfaces prepare a 
piece of wood to conform to the work, and glue a 
piece of felt to it; if for water rubbing cement the 
felt to the wood with shellac. To rub, first dip the 
pad into the liquid you are to use and then dip it into 
the pumice. For moldings and carved work roll up 
some hair cloth until it is about three-fourths of an 
inch thick, then unravel the ends, making a sort of 
hair brush. 

A box to hold the liquid you are using while rub- 
bing is desirable. Take a piece of board about fifteen 
inches long, about eight inches wide, and with sides 
five inches high, with onl}^ one end covered, the sides 
being made to slant or taper down toward the open 
end. Take a two-pound color can and place in it equal 
parts of crude oil and benzine; in another can, made 
quite shallow, place the pulverized pumicestone ; or the 
powder may be placed on the bottom of the box. 

Finishing Cheap New Furniture. — It is easv 



148 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

enough to get out nice looking cheap furniture, but the 
finish must have durabiHty or that Hne of goods will not 
stay on the market. There are many ways of cutting 
down cost of production, but wliatever else is done 
there must be no cutting down on the filling. This is 
the foundation and as it is, so is the finish. Nor will 
it do to put cheap, inexperienced labor on the filling. 
True, it is done right along. A skilled workman will 
do twice as much as the inexpert workman, and do 
it much better, of course. In fact, it takes a good 
workman to skimp a job successfully. 

It goes without saying that only straight-grained 
wood goes into cheap furniture. Oak of course is 
meant, with ash and chestnut on the side. To fill such 
wood allow from twelve to fourteen pounds of paste 
to the gallon of thinners. Let the filling stand until 
it has turned gray. Right here is where most filling 
troubles come in; the filler is rubbed off too soon, it 
does not have time enough to settle down into the 
pores of the wood. To wipe it off w^hile green is easier 
than to wipe when it is partly dry, or gray. Then, 
too, the filler is not always well rubbed into the wood. 
Excelsior and shavings are too coarse for rubbing off 
with; tow is the best thing. Excelsior will take the 
stuff off in streaks, while tow will gather the filler 
as you rub and form a good pad. 

After rubbing out the filler let the work stand for 
one or two days; then sandpaper it lightly with fine 
paper or paper that is partly worn, so that there will 
be no cutting of corners. It is not often that cheap 
work gets any sandpapering, but just a slight rub or 
two will rem.ove any grit, etc., and m_ake the surface 
very much better, at a very little extra cost. 

Let us suppose that the job has left the filling room 
in good condition. Now we will first-coat it, this be- 
ing a very important work. This should be a sur- 



FINISHING NEW FURNITURE 149 

facer with a silex base. It will make a hard, firm 
surface, one impervious to varnish, allowing the var- 
nish to hold out well. Such a surfacer is easily applied, 
easily sandpapered, and covers well. It is, therefore, a 
very economical and satisfactory coating. After it has 
become dry enough, apply to it a heavy coat of coach 
or rubbing varnish. 

Furniture Varnishes. — Some of the furniture 
finishing varnishes contain three times as much oil as 
gum, and while such a varnish is of course very dura- 
ble, it never becomes quite hard enough for furniture, 
being likely to get tacky when subjected to warmth, 
such as the pressure of the human body against it. 
There are complaints from furniture makers and deal- 
ers that the packing paper sticks to the goods, and it 
is no wonder, when we consider the soft, oily nature 
of the varnish it is coated with. But most furniture 
may be finished with twice as much oil as gum ; such a 
varnish will, in about three weeks, become hard enough 
to rub. We have finished tables, etc., from the wood 
up with such a varnish, and successfully. But if ex- 
treme durability of finish is looked for it will require 
months to do work with such a varnish. 

Years ago kauri gum was regarded as low-grade 
stock; it was then the cheapest gum used for making 
varnish. Furniture varnish was made entirely from 
kauri. A piece of furniture done with that sort of 
varnish twenty years previous to this record main- 
tained its high luster unimpaired. Now we hear com- 
plaints of polished jobs going dim even before they 
can be shipped to market. Still, the high dollar will 
secure the better sort of polishing varnish even now. 
It is a matter of price, and many will not pay it. A 
polishing varnish made from Manila gum will of 
course polish, but the finish will lose its luster in a 
short time. Kauri gum varnish with some rosin in it 



150 • THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

will do the same thing. It also requires longer rubbing 
to get the polish. 

Making Antique Furniture. — Quite a trade is 
done in making and selling fake antique furniture, or 
new furniture that has been put through a process that 
gives it the semblance of very old furniture. Various 
woods are thus processed, but particularly oak and 
mahogany. Oak receives a coat of white lead paint, 
which is allowed to become thoroughly dry. This 
coating is then removed with caustic potash and a steel 
wire brush, which not only cleans off the paint, but 
tears away the softer fibers of the wood, and at the 
same time darkens it. Sometimes it is necessary to 
give the work the appearance of having been exposed 
to strong sunlight for a long time. This is effected 
by bleaching with either diluted hydrochloric, sulphuric 
or oxalic acid. When it is required to be darkened 
it is placed in an air-tight chamber and subjected to 
the fumes of strong ammonia until it attains to the 
required depth. 

In finishing-off, wax polish containing some burnt 
umber is applied, and sa manipulated that while the 
flat surfaces of the piece are quite clean, the corners 
are dirty-looking, this giving the appearance of having 
been carelessly dusted off for a considerable time. A 
preparation of butter of antimony is then applied to 
harden the wax, and the job is ready for the purchaser. 

Mahogany is treated in pretty much the same man- 
ner as far as the painting and scrubbing off. When 
the paint is dry and hard it is treated as described 
for oak, after which the surface is smoothed down 
with coarse sandpaper, using the hand in manipulating 
the paper. The result of this work is to remove all 
traces of the previous operation, and to leave the sur- 
face of the wood quite coarse. It is then care- 
fnllv washed over with a saturated solution of bichro- 



FINISHING NE,W FURNITURE 151 

mate of potash to darken it, and to develop the figure 
of the wood. The next operation is to apply several 
coats of boiled linseed •oil, adding to the oil sufficient 
driers to dry it hard, as the oil alone, though containing 
a drying agent, may not always dry as desired on this 
sort of work. When dry and hard sandpaper it smooth 
and rub with raw oil, or French polish if not too much 
trouble and expense. 

Walnut is done the same way, excepting that car- 
bonate of soda is the darkening agent, in place of 
bichromate of potash. 



REFINISHING OLD FURNITURE 

Look the furniture over and ascertain what repairs 
are needed. The repairs require the work of the catn 
inet worker. Dents may be putty-filled, and broken 
veneering may be patched with pieces of old veneering, 
and when carefully done there will be no visible trace 
of the repair. After the cabinet man has finished his 
work it is ready for the finisher, with stain and var- 
nish, etc. Carefully sandpaper all parts that are to be 
finished, using sandpaper or steel wool. Old varnish 
that is not solid or in good shape for revarnishing 
should be removed. This may be effected by means 
of varnish remover, if the varnish is tough ; if dry and 
quite brittle it may be removed by scraping or with 
sandpaper; sometimes dry varnish can be taken off 
very easily by coating it with hot varnish, which, in 
drying, will contract and pull off the varnish in flakes ; 
this requires a dry, warm room, and several hours; 
usually over night will do it. Liquid removers may 
have to be employed, and are very efficient, though 
messy and disagreeable to handle. Alkalies and alco- 
hol, benzol, and some other liquids will take off old 
varnish, according to the toughness or hardness 
thereof. 

After removing the old varnish, where that may be 
necessary — and where the old varnish is in good shape 
it will not be necessary — sandpaper and make smooth 
the surface and clean off dust. Now look up parts that 
may require coloring, to make uniform with the main 
part of the work. My own method is to apply a col- 
ored oil stain all over the work, the stain being one 

152 



REFINISHING OLD FURNITURE 153 

that is similar to the color of the wood, and then to 
rub and remove the surplus stain. This evens up the 
coloring, and is left to l3ecome dry, japan driers hav- 
ing been put in the oil. Should there remain any parts 
after this that are lighter than the general surface, 
touch up such parts with an oil stain. When dry, go 
over the entire job with curled hair or moss, to take 
off gloss and specks. Then the finish may be applied, 
varnish usually. If only one coat is to be applied, let 
that be heavy, flowing it on, and brushing it out well, 
brushing out even and level. Use good furniture var- 
nish. If two coats are required, let the first be rather 
light, and after forty-eight hours rub down lightly 
with fine steel wool or fine sandpaper; then dust off 
and apply a full coat of furniture varnish. 

As regards both the amount of work and the quality 
of varnish used, it will depend upon the character of 
the job, whether cheap, costly, or medium. 

There are several grades of furniture varnish, and 
as comparatively little suffices for the average job 
it would seem to be the best policy to use the best. 
However, the medium grade will do very well in most 
cases. Furniture is usually given a luster finish, no 
rubbing on the last coat. 

Some old furniture may require simply a light 
sandpapering, using very fine paper or steel wool, fin- 
ishing with a coat of light-bodied varnish. Or it may 
do with a mere clean-off, using a rag with some reviver 
or renovating liquid, for which purpose there are sev- 
eral formulas. First of all it may be best to wash 
off with water and soap, then wiping dry. The actual 
condition of the furniture will of course indicate the 
method for its improvement. 

The refinishing of old furniture forms a large and 
profitable trade, and it is important to know how to 
do such work at the minimum of time and expense; 



154 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

yet I would not advise a close estimate, nor advise 
the use of cheap materials, unless it be for very cheap 
jobs. A little varnish goes a long distance on furni- 
ture, and the cost will not be great even where the 
best grade is used. You can use a cheap rosin-adulter- 
ated varnish that will dry quickly and give a handsome 
luster, but such a finish will not prove satisfactory in 
the end. 

Enameled Furniture. — After cleaning up and 
making smooth with sandpaper, which will also give 
proper tooth, apply a coat of enamel paint, white or 
any desired tint. This may be bought ready for use, 
in best and medium grade; if for very cheap jobs you 
can obtain what is known to the trade as Special Var- 
nish quality ; some varnish makers put out a very hard- 
drying yet fairly elastic enamel paint. Of course the 
paint may be made in the shop, using zinc white and 
either white damar or pale copal varnish. The zinc 
white should be either ground in varnish or be dry. 
Some cheap work may be done, however, with white 
lead and zinc white, in oil, thinned out with turpentine, 
adding a little bleached linseed oil, or poppyseed oil, 
with some white japan drier. This is for the first 
coat or ground. Rub smooth, dust off, and apply a coat 
of white enamel, made from zinc white and damar 
varnish. The ground just described will do also for 
the doing of a first-class job. Over it apply two coats 
of quick-drying flake white, in oil, thinned with tur- 
pentine, sandpapering the last coat smooth. Apply a 
coat of white enamel, which may be bought, using 
the best grade, or may be made, using the best grade 
of French process white zinc, ground in hard white 
enamel varnish. A coat of this should stand three 
days, then rub down white fine pumicestone powder 
and water; in twenty-four hours apply another coat 
of this enamel, and let it stand two or three days, to 



REFINISHING OLD FURNITURE 155 

dry. Then moss off and rub with curled hair and 
pumicestone powder and water. Wipe dry, then polish 
with powdered rottenstone and sweet oil, if the sur- 
face is quite smooth. If not smooth, it will be better 
to apply another coat of the enamel, which may then 
be polished. This should produce a surface smooth as 
plate glass. The enamel may be tinted any color de- 
sired. 

Cheap work may be done with much less labor, for 
the first or ground coat may be of glue size and whit- 
ing. One coat of this will do on some work, as it is 
done in the factory, but two coats will make a better 
foundation for the enamel paint. 

A clear varnish for enamel paint may be made by 
adding two quarts of strong denatured grain alcohol 
to four gallons of damar varnish, shaking the mixture 
well. This varnish will appear rather dark, but it will 
not affect the white enamel ; its purpose is to get rid 
of the opalescence of the damar, and the result is a 
clear, transparent liquid, which also causes the varnish 
to drv harder than it wotrld if not thus treated. 

Another clear varnish may be prepared by dissolv- 
ing one pound of gum sandarach and four ounces of 
clear Venice turpentine in four ounces of 94 per cent 
alcohol on a hot water bath, with gentle heat. When 
the gum is dissolved and while yet warm filter through 
fine muslin. 

Repolishing. — When a piecd of cabinet work or 
furniture requires repolishing it is best to take the 
article apart, if possible, for this will facilitate the 
work and permit of a cleaner and more thorough job. 
Remove fixtures, such as the handles, etc. Rust-dirt 
under these parts may be removed by rubbing with a 
paste made from fine emery flour and turpentine. Then 
clean up the whole surface of the work, using soap and 
water, or acid, or whatever will do the cleaning best. 



156 rm<: kxpkrt wood finisher 

Then apply a coat of clear raw linseed oil, aMdinfjj a 
little color to match the wood, then rnhhinj^; off dry 
all that a ra<^ will remove. This will j;ive nniform 
coloring^ and make a hetter <;ronnd for the repolishing. 
Repair hroken or other fanlty places. Dents or fine 
cracks may be filled with shellac by repeated coats, or 
with a specially prepared pntty, that mnst he made to 
dry qnick and hard, so that it may he sandpapered well. 

Coloring Up. — The principal colors employed by 
polishers for "colorini;- nj)" are black and red. The 
black j)olish may be made by mixinj;- lampblack with 
thin polish (half polish and half alcohol). Strain 
this throngh mnslin. Or yon may nse a little aniline 
spirit black with thin i)()iish. This is the handiest 
way, bnt is not so i)ermanent as the lampblack or i^as 
black polish. Red ])olish may be made by mixin<]^ l^is- 
marck brown with thin polish. This is the red polish 
mostly nsed by the bVench polishers. 

llavini;- ])repare(l the color, mix a little of the black 
with the thin polish nntil the desired depth of color is 
obtained ; be carefnl not to ^et it too strong. In color- 
ing it is better to ap])ly two or three coats of weak 
color than risk getting it too dark ; jn case, however, 
the work is too dark wash it ol'f with alcohol. And 
now, assnming that the light parts are dark enongh. 
yet we find that they are not the same shade as the 
other parts, not brown enongh, let ns say. We may 
remedy this by mixing some of the red polish witli 
some thin polish, as we did with fhe black, and color 
with this. As these colors are transparent, one c(^1(m- 
will shcnv throngh another, so by coating the black 
with the red we get a brown. 

Furniture Polishes. — The character of the work 
and the fnrnitnre will determine what kind of polish 
shonld be nsed when it is desired to revive the finish. 
One of the most popnlar ])olishes, and easiest to make 



REFINISHING OLD FURNITURE 157 

and manage, is that made from beeswax and turpen- 
tine, the product having the consistency of soft butter. 
The mode of appHcation is too generally known to 
require a description here, yet some mention must be 
made. The wax is Uken up on a bit of rag or cloth, 
and is well rubbed on to the object that is to be re- 
newed, after which, allowing a little time for it to set, 
it is well rubbed with a clean piece of woolen rag until 
a fine polish appears. In some cases rubbing with a 
stiff bristle brush is advised. 

Wax finish is not the most durable; for one thing 
it is easily affected by water or dampness, which 
turns it white or pale. A better finish may be made 
from three or four pieces of gum sandarach, about 
the size of a black walnut, and adding one pint of 
boiled oil, boiling the whole for one hour or so. Then 
remove from the fire and allow it to cool ; then add a 
dram of Venice turpentine; if too thick add a little 
pine turpentine. Give the furniture a coat of this and 
let it stand for a few hours, after which rub off clean. 
The furniture then should be rubbed at frequent inter- 
vals to keep it clean and fresh, but it will not be neces- 
sary to renew the polish more than once every three or 
more months. Any scratches on the furniture may be 
removed by rubbing in a little of the polish. 

Doing-Up Old Furniture. — An expert gives the 
following as his method of doing-up old furniture: 
Place in a quart bottle the following ingredients, and 
in the order given : One gill of powdered rottenstone, 
one gill of raw linseed oil, one gill of turpentine, one 
gill of benzol, one gill of a strong solution of oxalic 
acid, one-half gill of alcohol, and one gill of cold water, 
to which has been added gradually a teaspoon ful of 
sulphuric acid. Dip a piece of felt into the mixture, 
having poured out some into a saucer, and rub the 
work in a circular manner, beginning at one part and 



158 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

slowly working toward the opposite part, in the usual 
manner. Do not rub too long in any one place, and 
do only a portion of a surface at a time. On some 
surfaces flour pumicestone may be used in place of 
rottenstone, which is not as abrasive as the other 
powder. This polish is said to remove white marks 
from varnished surfaces. 

Furniture Cream or French Repolisher. — In 
one pint of 95 per cent, alcohol put one-half ounce of 
gum copal ; first powder the copal and pass through a 
fine sieve or cheese-cloth ; then add one ounce of shellac, 
flakes or pulverized. Place in a stoppered bottle and 
keep in a warm place, shaking occasionally to facilitate 
dissolution. The gums should be all dissolved in two 
or three days. Then strain through cheese-cloth and 
bottle again, keeping bottle well corked. 

Furniture Revivers. — Wax does not do so well on 
French polished work, but does very well on other 
finishes ; for use on some woods it is well to add a little 
coloring, say red sanders wood. For reviving French 
polished work try this: Take equal parts of turpen- 
tine, strong vinegar, alcohol, and raw linseed oil, plac- 
ing these in a bottle in the order given. This is neces- 
sary in order that curdling may be avoided. Curdling 
will spoil the mixture. The formula given is said to 
be a very superior one. 

For French polished work the following very old 
and still popular reviver will please you: Beat up 
gum Arabic and whites of two eggs in a mortar or 
other suitable vessel until they amalgamate. Then add 
one-half pint each of raw linseed oil and pure strong 
vinegar, eight ounces of alcohol, one ounce of hydro- 
chloric acid, and two ounces of butter of antimony. 
Rubbing with this mixture will give a good polish, one 
that will prove lasting as well as pleasing. 

Here is another formula: Pulverize one ounce of 



REFINISHING OLD FURNITURE 159 

shellac gum, two drams of gum guaiacum, two drams 
of dragon's blood, and two drams of gum mastic, place 
the whole in a bottle and add one pint of alcohol. 
Place the bottle in a warm place, shake occasionally, 
and when dissolved strain through cheese-cloth, bottle 
it again, and add a tablespoonful of raw linseed oil and 
shake all together. This polish is intended for the 
darker woods, for it would discolor the lighter woods. 
It is especially fine for cherry and mahogany, on ac- 
count of the reddish hue imparted by the dragon's 
blood. 

Furniture Renovating Polish. — Melt in a vessel 
that is to be placed in another vessel containing hot 
water, white wax one-half ounce, pale rosin one-half 
ounce, and Venice turpentine one-quarter dram. Stir 
until the mass is dissolved. Then pour out into an- 
other vessel and while it is hot pour into it five quarts 
of turpentine. Let it stand two hours, then it will 
have assumed the consistency of vaseline or soft but- 
ter. Having made the furniture or piano clean, rub 
on the polish with a bit of soft rag, rubbing to a 
polish with felt or dry cloth. 

Another formula: Melt together at a gentle heat 
three ounces of turpentine and four ounces of white 
wax, in an earthen vessel, covering it to retain the 
fumes of turpentine. Allow the mass to cool until it 
is almost firm, then add two ounces of alcohol, and 
mix well together. 

Still another one : Melt together two and one-half 
ounces of yellow wax, one ounce of white wax, one 
ounce of Castile soap, ten ounces of turpentine, ten 
ounces of boiling water, and one dram of potash. The 
best way is to melt the waxes and the turpentine to- 
gether, and separately dissolve the soap and potash 
in the hot water by boiling until the soap is dissolved, 
and then stir in the wax and turpentine compound 



160 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

while the latter is still hot. After removing the mass 
from the fire continue stirring it until it is cold, to 
prevent the wax from granulating. 

Derby Cream. — This very old and reliahle reviver 
is made by adding six ounces of raw linseed oil to three 
ounces of acetic acid; stir well, then add one-half ounce 
of butter of antimony and three ounces of alcohol. 

Wax Stained for Colored Woods. — Shred and 
melt four ounces of beeswax in ten ounces of turpen- 
tine, and color it with alkanet root. The root may be 
put in the turpentine to digest the color before putting 
the wax in it. Melt the wax in turpentine, over a 
water bath. Stir the mixture while it is melting. An- 
iline may be used in place of alkanet root. 

Or, linseed oil ten ounces, white wax one pound, 
white or pale rosin one ounce ; stain with alkanet root, 
one ounce ; steep the root in the turpentine. First melt 
the rosin, then add the oil by stirring. Then melt the 
wax and add it to the oil and rosin mixture. Finally 
stir in the alkanet coloring. 

Or, melt together four ounces of beeswax and one 
ounce of rosin, and add two ounces of turpentine, with 
dry Venetian red to color the mass. 

Polish for Good Furniture. — Melt one pound of 
yellow beeswax in one pint of raw linseed pil, on a 
water bath, and after taking it from the bath stir in 
one gallon of turpentine. This will give a thin polish, 
useful for restoring old furniture. First clean the 
furniture and apply the wax with a soft woolen cloth, 
after which rub to a polish with a woolen or silk cloth. 

Renovating Piano Polish. — Melt together one- 
fourth ounce of Carnauba wax, two ounces of Japan 
w^ax, and two ounces of yellow beeswax ; add kerosene 
oil sufficient to form a mass about the consistency of 
soft butter. The waxes are melted together first, then 
are left to cool a little, after which the kerosene oil 



REFINISHING OLD FURNITURE 161 

is stirred in. Now let the mass become cold, and if it 
proves to be too solid it must be remelted and a little 
more kerosene oil be added. 

The Carnauba wax gives a high polish, while the 
two other waxes make the mass more elastic or flexible. 
Cheap Wax Polish. — Dissolve one-fourth pound 
of pearlash in one quart of boiling water, and while 
boiling add and stir in one and one-half pounds of 
shredded beeswax; stir until dissolved, and add water 
occasionally, to make the mass the consistency of good 
cream. As it will thicken some upon cooling it will be 
necessary to add water while using it, to maintain a 
uniform consistency. Apply as you would varnish, 
and after it has become dry polish with stiff bristle 
brush or cloth. 

Polish for Statuary, Etc. — The wax polish just 
described will do for statuary, plaster casts, white 
marble, etc., only it will be necessary to substitute 
white wax for the yellow. 

Perfuming Polishes and Renovators. — Many 
furniture polishes and renovators have an unpleasant 
odor, and to overcome this certain perfumes are added. 
Any essential oil will do for this purpose, but oil of 
mirbane is most generally employed. It is not expen- 
sive, being the artificial oil of bitter almonds. Oil of 
wintergreen has a pleasing odor, while such oils as 
those of origanum, thyme, etc., may be used. The 
high cost of many other pleasing odor oils debars 
them from being used- 
Lemon oil has the familiar odor of lemons, and it 
is one of the best for our purpose, as it acts as a strong 
detergent. Its cost, however, makes it impossible for 
our use. Many of the essential oils act in the same 
way as lemon oil. Place some oil of this class on a 
rubber and rub a varnished surface with it, and it acts 
like curled hair, dulling the surface of the varnish. 



102 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

Used in connection with rubbing oil it is said to save 
a third of the time required for the rubbing. When 
used in this way the surface should afterwards be well 
cleaned off. 

Various Furniture Polishes 

For Old Rosewood. — Place in a vessel ten ounces 
of yellow wax, one-half pint of boiled linseed oil, and 
one ounce of boiled alkanet root; place the pan in an- 
other that is three-fourths full of boiling water, leav- 
ing it there until the wax has m^ted and the whole 
has been well colored with the alkanet. Strain, and 
when cool add to it one gill each of strong vinegar 
and turpentine, mixing the mass w^ell. This "fetches 
up'' old mahogany as well as old rosewood, and indeed 
any dark colored wood. 

For Old Oak Furniture. — Dust the furniture 
carefully, then wash with Castile or any good white 
soap, forming a suds with the soap (and soap flakes 
are even better), after which rinse and let dry. Then 
rub with thin wax polish, using a soft woolen rag to 
get a polish. Plain surfaces may be nicely polished by 
rubbing with the palm of the hand, the friction gener- 
ating a little heat which, combined with the natural oil 
of the skin, produces a very fine polish. 

Avoid too Much Renovating. — Furniture suffers 
more from overpolishing than from neglect. The am- 
ateur applies too much polish, and then fails to rub off 
the excess; in this manner the surface gets a coating 
of some thickness, detracting from the beauty that may 
have existed there. Some pieces of old furniture have 
a delicate finish, obtained by much hard rubbing. The 
secret of repolishing old furniture, etc., lies in careful 
cleaning and dusting, then an application of the re- 
newer or polish, this being very thin, and the coating 



REFINISHING OLD FURNITURE 163 

very thin; follow with a rubbing with a diy soft 
woolen rag or an old silk handkerchief, until the sur- 
face is so hard and clear that passing the hand over 
it will leave no mark. 

The old furniture that has been badly used and long 
neglected will require much work to get it in prime 
condition again. If the polish is too thickly applied it 
will make a soft, smeary job and a perfect dust 
trap. 

Splashes of dirt on the furniture may be removed 
with soap and water, following with clear water for 
rinsing, then when dry rub with a mixture of alcohol 
and raw linseed oil, equal parts, or with alcohol and 
turpentine. These mixtures have a cleansing effect, in 
addition to giving the object a polish. Rub the fluid 
well, and then rub off any surplus with a dry rag, A 
similar liquid polish may be made by adding a little 
stearine with turpentine and alcohol; if too much 
stearine is used there is likely to be white streaks in 
the mass. After the turpentine and alcohol have evap- 
orated give the surface a good rubbing with a dry 
woolen cloth. This will give a good polish that may 
easily be renewed when dim. 

Here is an old home-favorite polish : Shred fine two 
ounces of Castile soap and two ounces of beeswax into 
a jar, with one-half pint of water; set the jar in a 
moderately warm oven until the soap and wax are dis- 
solved. Then set aside until cold, when there is to be 
mixed into it one-half pint of turpentine and two table- 
spoonfuls of vinegar; stir well. Stir the mass occa- 
sionally while it is in the oven. 

The principal ingredients of most furniture reno- 
vators and polishes are turpentine, raw linseed oil, vin- 
egar, or acetic acid, alcohol, and butter of antimony. 
Many of the commercial polishes are simply linseed 
oil, turpentine, and strong vinegar, equal parts, and 



164 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

this makes as good a liquid as can be desired for the 
usual run of old furniture. There are also other sub- 
stances, solid and liquid, used in making up polishes 
or renovators, as the following list will show. 

Crude petroleum and also kerosene or coal oil. The 
crude oil is very useful in cleaning up new furniture 
after it has come from the store, and for church furni- 
ture, pews, etc., after it has been set up. It cleans 
and brightens up the varnished surface. It was once 
recommended to me by an old workman, as he was 
renovating the pews, etc., of a church. As the oil evap- 
orates in time, it leaves a dulled surface, which must 
then be rubbed well with a dry rag, to produce a pol- 
ished effect. 

Mix together one pint of raw linseed oil, two ounces 
of camphor spirits, four ounces of strong vinegar, one 
ounce of butter of antimony, one-half ounce of liquid 
ammonia, placing the ingredients in a well-stoppered 
bottle; shake well before using. Apply with a soft 
cloth, and rub to a polish with woolen rag or old silk. 

Olive or sweet oil eight ounces, oil of amber eight 
ounces, and tincture of henna one-half ounce. The 
henna colors the polish. Keep in corked bottle, and 
shake before using. Apply with a soft brush or cloth, 
and rub to a dry polish with soft cotton cloth. 

One quart of strong cider vinegar, two ounces of 
butter of antimony, two ounces of alcohol, and one 
quart of raw linseed oil; shake well before using. 

Acetic acid two drams, oil of lavender one-half 
dram, alcohol one dram, and raw linseed oil four 
ounces. Mix and use as generally directed. 

Equal parts of boiled linseed oil, turpentine, and 
white vinegar. Very good for removing scratches. 

"Furniture paste" is made as follows : Dissolve six 
ounces of pearlash in one quart of hot water; add one- 
half pound of white beeswax ; place all in an earthen or 



REFINISHING OLD FURNITURE 165 

enameled vessel, place on stove and let it simmer for 
about thirty minutes. Then take from the fire and 
when it is cool skim off the v^ax. When required for 
use add a little hot water to the wax and work it into 
a paste. 

Raw linseed oil one pint, shellac varnish four ounces, 
turpentine two ounces, alkanet root two ounces, and 
shredded beeswax two ounces. Steep the root in the 
oil to extract the color. 

Mix well together one pint of raw linseed oil, one- 
half pint of shellac varnish, and one-half pint of 
alcohol. 

Acetic acid two drams, oil of lavender one-half 
dram, alcohol one dram, and raw linseed oil four 
ounces. 

Raw linseed oil one pint, alcohol two ounces, butter 
of antimony four ounces. 

Raw linseed oil one pint, rose pink one ounce, and 
alkanet root one ounce ; macerate the root in a mortar 
(jr other suitable vessel, and place in the oil, to extract 
the color. 

The formulas given are old, though none the less 
useful for that reason; but it should be noted here 
that such coloring matters as henna and alkanet root 
while desirable on account of their durability of color, 
can be replaced by the coal dyes or anilines, and are 
so replaced, though not with entire satisfaction, owing 
to their fugitive nature as colors. 

Coloring is useful where any of the dark woods are 
to be treated, selecting a color to agree best with the 
particular wood or finish in hand. But where the ob- 
ject is simply to revive the luster, or clean and give 
new life to the finish, the coloring is of course not 
necessary. 

The purpose of an acid in a renovator is to clean 
dirty surfaces, hence if the furniture has been washed 



166 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

clean with soap and water there will be no use for an 
acid in the mixture. 

Wherever alcohol is indicated in a polish or reno- 
vator the denatured article suffices, for even though it 
should contain kerosene it would not vitiate its use- 
fulness; and if the denaturant is wood alcohol, no 
matter. But in all cases the use of grain alcohol, even 
the denatured, is advised. When grain alcohol has 
been denatured with, say, ten per cent of methyl or 
wood alcohol, it is often referred to as methylated 
spirits; our British cousins use this term. 

Removing Stains, White Spots, Etc. 

White Spots. — White marks on furniture, occur- 
ring most frequently on polished table tops, may be 
caused by dampness, water, or alcohol. They are re- 
moved usually with difficulty, though an expert, whose 
word I have the greatest confidence in, states that he 
has often successfully removed white spots by rubbing 
them with a rag containing salted butter. The rag is 
folded to form a sort of rubber, and the spot is rubbed 
briskly. He also recommends holding a heated sad- 
iron over the spot, being careful not to heat the surface 
enough to soften the varnish. Then polish with raw 
linseed on a rag. The secret of this method lies in the 
fact that the heat of the iron is dry, not moist, and it 
gently fuses, to some extent at least, the gum of the 
varnish, and thus causes the white to disappear. White 
marks made by hot dishes are caused by a moist heat, 
but a dry heat removes such marks. 

Other methods have been used with more or less 
success, a few of which follow : 

As soon after the white spot has been made as pos- 
sible apply diluted oxalic acid ; follow by rubbing with 
either sweet or linseed oil. 



REFINISHING OLD FURNITURE 167 

Rub the part with spirits of camphor until the white- 
ness disappears. Then rub with oil. 

Camphorated oil may be used, rubbing the part as 
with the former liquid. Camphorated oil is simply 
sweet oil and camphor spirits, mixed. This, by the 
way, is sometimes used as a renovator. 

Apply a mixture of oil — linseed, cottonseed, or sweet 
oil — mixed with salt, spread on thinly, and left on for 
about one hour. Then remove it with a rag, and rub 
the spot dry. 

One man tells us that he uses a hot iron, but follows 
with a polish made from raw oil, vinegar, turpentine 
and alcohol, well mixed and rubbed on, the same as 
when renovating. 

White marks on mahogany, caused by dampness, 
should be well rubbed with a soft rag moistened with 
a little sweet oil. 

Water will spot a varnished surface when the var- 
nish contains rosin, and there is nothing in the way of 
a cure save to revarnish it. Some say that a liquid 
prepared from two ounces of oxalic acid, one ounce of 
butter of antimony, and one pint of water will remove 
the blemish. Doubtful. 

Alcohol marks are best treated as soon as possible, 
washing off the spilt alcoholic liquor, or other bever- 
age, and then sprinkling some dry powdered sal soda 
over the part affected most, allowing this to remain a 
few moments ; then wipe dry and rub- with a rag damp- 
ened with kerosene oil; after this rub the entire top 
with the rag and soda, following with a rub with a 
clean cloth. If the beverage has been washed off im- 
mediately there should be no trouble with spotting. 
If the spot is old, follow the same procedure, wetting 
the part with water and dusting on the soda. But, as 
stated, white spots, no matter how caused, are not 
easily remedied; the surest way is to remove all the 



i(.s 'I III-: ixn-.kT WOOD I'INisiikr 

varnish from the table top and revarnish or poHsh. 
Where tlie finish is in oil, by rnbbint^. the hot dish or 
alcohol does not daniat^e the piece very nnicli. 

Bloom on X'aknish. — A blue-i;ray him sometimes 
mars the finest polish finish, ;ind this may be removed 
by rubbini;- with water to which a little vine<;ar has 
been added, abont a tablespoon fnl of vinei;ar to one 
(piart of water. Saturate some cheese-cloth with this 
liciuid and wrini;- out as dry as you can. Ivub the pol- 
ished or varnished surface with this cloth, being' care- 
ful to rub lii;litly, to avoid markinq; the varnish, and 
follow with drying- the surface with a dry, clean piece 
of cheese-cloth. If this should happen to fail, follow 
in about a week with a repetition of the operation, 
when success oui^ht to follow and the article look 
bright and new. 

Renovating Dull Finish. — (las, coal and illumin- 
atin*;-, with dust and dampness, cause furniture to 
assume a diui^y appearance, to remcwe whicli wipe off 
with a cloth dampened with benzine; let the work stand 
then for an hour; then make up suds with a qcHul white 
soap, or soa]) Hakes, and with a soft cloth wash the 
furnitiu'c, followini;- with clear water; when dry ])olish 
with a soft dry cloth. 

FiNCEU Marks on Piano. — Clean (^IT with water 
made slightly acid with strong vinegar or acetic acid. 
Alcohol is also a good cleanser, but must be used cau- 
tiously, as it affects the varnish easily. A (piick pass- 
ing over the work with a slightly dampened cloth is 
called for. 

Greasy Appearance after Poltsiting. — Reno- 
vators or polishes containing oil are apt to leave a 
greasy film unless carefully removed at the time. This 
may be removed with vinegar or acetic acid, diluted. 

Discolored \V(X)ns. — Woods that are naturally dis- 
colored, that is, have dark parts with the light, cannot 



kKFlNISHlN(i (JlJJ FURNITUkK 169 

well be remedied, though a bleach may do it. But acci- 
dental discolorations may be remedied with strong 
solution of oxalic acid, or one part of hydrochloric acid 
with five parts of water. Ink spots may be treated 
with oxalic acid, or try spirits of nitre, or nitric acid. 
Using the latter acids, the spot will become white, and 
as soon as it does this wipe off with a soft dry cloth. 
Jt may be necessary to give two applications, but the 
acid will finally take away the spot. 

Bleaching Out Stain.s. — There are several acids 
used for bleaching out stains on woods, vinegar or 
acetic acid being the most common. P^or very dark 
stains oxalic acid is preferred. Vinegar and acetic acid 
may be used full strength, Ijut oxalic acid should be 
reduced with water, say, one pound to the gallon of 
water, though it must sometimes be used stronger than 
this, say, one ounce to the gill of water, it all depend- 
ing upon the kind of stain to be removed. Vinegar or 
acetic acid is sometimes added to the oxalic, though 
why is not very clear. The solutions are used hot, 
warm or cold, as preferred. A little zinc put in some 
hydrochloric acid modifies the acid and this is used 
as a wood bleacher. Nitric acid, diluted with water, is 
another acid bleacher. It is sometimes used after ox- 
alic acid has failed to bleach. A method of using 
bleaching agents to remove stains from wood is to 
first apply oxalic acid, then sandpaper the part and 
then apply a mixture of caustic lime seven parts, and 
sal soda one part. 

Stains from iron rust may be removed with what 
is called Russian water, which is made from oxalate 
of tin in diluted oxalic acid. 

White Makks on Wax Finish. — When water lies 
on a waxed surface long enough it will turn the wax 
white, the effect of the water uniting with the wax. 
The remedy is to rub the parts with a rag moistened 



170 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

with alcohol, after which rub with a little oil, linseed 
or sweet oil. This will remove the white blemish, 
but one should be careful not to let water lie on a wax 
finish. 

Protecting Wax Finish from Water. — If the 
finish is liable to come in contact with water or damp- 
ness it may be protected with a coat of this liquid : 
Mix together six parts of copal varnish, six parts of 
boiled linseed oil, and ten parts of turpentine, all by 
weight. Use Zanzibar copal varnish if convenient. 
This coating will preserve the finish against water and 
not alter the appearance of the finish. 

Cleaning Dirty Hardwood Finish. — If there is 
much grime and dirt, so that ordinary soap and water 
washing will not remove it, soak it with kerosene oil 
for an hour or so, to loosen up the stuff, then rub it 
off with a rag, and wash with strong soap and water. 
Then rinse and wipe dry. Then rub with crude oil, 
followed by polishing with a soft rag. But if the 
work will not finish up clean by the method given, ap- 
ply more crude oil to the bad parts and sprinkle some 
pulverized pumicestone over it and rub it; rub gently 
and regularly, first with a circular motion, then with 
the grain of the wood. When the surface has become 
smooth and bright wipe off and finish as indicated after 
washing with soap and water. 

Sticky Pews. — Sticky varnish on church pews is 
not caused by poor varnish as a rule, though a cheap 
varnish, containing rosin, could produce this condi- 
tion. The air of the average church building is damp 
and impure, there being little or no ventilation, and 
the air reeking with ammonia and perhaps coal gas. 
The trouble sometimes comes from revarnishing over 
greasy surfaces. The parts that come in contact with 
the body or hands of the pew*s occupant in time be- 
come greasy, and to varnish over this means undry 



REFINISHING OLD FURNITURE 171 

varnish. Before revarnishing, the seats and other 
parts that come in contact with persons should be 
washed with soap and water, or with water contain- 
ing some sal soda, using hot water. 

There is a grade of varnish specially adapted for 
church pews, and is called pew varnish; it is made 
with hard copal gum, and is rather short in oil. This 
is the varnish that should be used for the purpose, 
though there are others that will do very well, being 
made from a hard copal gum. 

The best cure for sticky pews is the removal of the 
varnish. This may be done with some caustic or with 
varnish remover. It is a large job, but effective. Some 
coat the old varnish with shellac, used very thin. Over 
this apply a coat of pew varnish. Some advise rub- 
bing the sticky varnish with drying japan, but this is 
a poor way. 

Cleaning Dirty Varnished Surface. — This sub- 
ject is treated under another head, but the present case 
is that which comes under the notice of railroad men, 
who have to deal with cars that become very grimy 
in certain parts. To remove this grime they use a 
paste made as follows : Starch or flour forty parts, 
hydrochloric acid forty-five parts, chloride of lime fif- 
teen parts, and turpentine one-half part; mix thor- 
oughly to a paste. Cover the grimed parts, whether 
of stone, wood or metal, and let remain on for some 
hours, testing it now and then after that time, to see 
how the work comes on. When it has loosened up all 
the dirt and grime remove the stuff by rubbing briskly 
with cloth or brush, when the work will come out clean 
and bright. The lime chloride keeps the paste moist, 
and permits the removal of the paste without injury 
to the surface of the varnish. 

Removing Specks on Rosewood Piano. — ^The mi- 
nute specks seen on rosewood with varnish finish are 



172 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

caused by an oil that exudes from the wood, and which 
shellac and varnish fail to hold back. They greatly 
disfigure the finish, and the only remedy is to sand- 
paper and refinish. 

Fine Cracks on Mahogany. — When mahogany 
finish shows a number of fine fissures, impairing the 
finish, they may usually be removed from sight by 
rubbing into them a putty made from dry Venetian 
red and gum Arabic mucilage. This method will do 
for any other wood, only making the color of the 
putty to suit the wood or finish. 

Pitting of Varnish on Piano. — Make a hard wax 
polish with one-half ounce of Carnauba wax, two 
ounces of Japan wax, or white beeswax, and two 
ounces of seresin wax; melt all together on a water 
bath; when melted add some kerosene oil, enough to 
make the wax compound about like vaseline; if it be- 
comes too hard, upon cooling you may add a little 
more kerosene. Apply this with a woolen pad, giving 
as many applications as may be required to fill up the 
tiny pits. 

Restoring Color to Old Mahogany. — Add one- 
half ounce of alkanet root, cut up in small pieces, to 
one pint of raw linseed oil, in which let it stand for 
one week, to extract the coloring. Then add one-half 
ounce of powdered gum Arabic and one ounce of shel- 
lac varnish; place in a bottle and keep in a warm place 
for a week, then strain it. Wash the surface of the 
wood with slightly soapy water, rinse with clear water, 
wipe dry, and polish with the wax, using a soft woolen 
rag. 

Furniture Bruises. — If the bruise goes down into 
the wood, wet it with warm water; this will raise the 
sunken part to a level with the general surface; after 
allowing the part to become dry, sandpaper it smooth 
and level. Then stain and putty, if this is necessary. 



REFINISHING OLD FURNITURE 173 

Another way is to fold some brown paper and wet it, 
laying it on the bruised part and holding a hot iron 
over it until the water has been evaporated from the 
paper. It may be necessary to repeat the treatment. 
A small bruise may be cured by wetting the part and 
holding the hot iron over it. 

Using the Chamois Skin. — Never rub a varnished 
surface with a dry chamois skin or wash leather, for 
it is very apt to scratch the varnish. The dry skin 
gathers dust and specks of dirt, and these mar the var- 
nished surface by rubbing, besides which dry skin is 
harsh. , 

Removincj Old Varnish 

Though very efficient, the commercial removers of 
old varnish are costly, and in some cases quite out of 
the question on this account. But if you use them, 
then avoid waste. The proper way to use them is as 
follows: First, coat the surface all over, and not in 
patches ; let the remover have time to work before be- 
ginning to remove it. Try it now and then, to ascer- 
tain how it progresses, and if it shows that the old 
varnish is loose, then begin to scrape it ofif ; if it is not 
loose enough, then apply another coat. The common 
mistake is to begin scraping before the liquid has had 
time to soften the varnish down to the wood. To 
soften a patch at a time and remove it is a waste of 
time and remover. Keep the can well corked, as the 
liquid is very volatile. Such are the directions given 
by a manufacturer of removers. The remover acts 
somewhat slowly, but in time will eat clear to the 
bottom of the varnish. Very hard varnish is more 
difficult to remove, and requires a longer time than 
newer or softer varnish. 

Where a scraper cannot be used, as on certain parts, 
work the brush that is used for applying the remover 



174 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

back and forth, or use a wire brush or coarse steel 
wool. After you have taken off all the old varnish 
take benzol, or benzine, or denatured alcohol, or just 
benzine, with a little of either of the other liquids 
added, and clean off all the old stuff until the surface 
is clean. 

By adding some paraffin or other wax to the liquid 
remover evaporation is retarded ; hence the can of re- 
mover should be shaken before using, to mix the wax 
and liquid together. Also by means of this retarder, 
wax, it is possible to use it on upright surfaces, and to 
work in the open air. 

Alcohol Remover. — Varnish, after its turpentine 
content has evaporated, is mainly a vegetable mass, 
and hence is easily dissolved by alcohol or alkali, and 
by several other liquids. Alcohol does well for small 
objects, affecting the varnish at once, but not eating 
through thick coatings very quickly. Its slow action 
makes it less desirable for larger surfaces that are 
coated with oil varnish, but for shellacked surfaces it 
is to be preferred. For certain delicate work alcohol, 
to which has been added a little camphor gum, is use- 
ful ; rub the part with this liquid briskly, and when the 
coating has become soft enough remove it by washing 
with soapsuds. Alcohol and banana liquid together 
make a very effective remover. 

Fusel Oil Remover. — These removers are very 
volatile and injurious to the user. They are also in- 
flammable and explosive. Fusel oil forms the basis 
of ethers, guncotton, collodion, banana liquid and 
cheap whisky. It is a poison and should be handled 
with due care, or only by those accustomed to han- 
dling it. Yet it is a powerful varnish remover. It is 
also useful for cleaning old paint and varnish brushes, 
and for removing tar, shellac, copal varnish, lacquer, 
paint, etc. Some say it will injure the hog bristle 



REFINISHING OLD FURNITURE 175 

Brush by destroying its spring or elasticity. When 
used in the shop or house there should be as much 
free air as possible, having doors or windows open 
to admit fresh air. The same may be said respecting 
any other of the varnish removers, wood alcohol be- 
ing the worst offender of the lot. 

Usually fusel oil is not used by itself, but some 
other suitable liquid is added to it, the following typical 
formulas showing this: Mix together four ounces of 
benzol, three ounces of fusel oil, and one ounce of de- 
natured alcohol. Increase these proportions for larger 
quantities. Another formula calls for wood alcohol 
in place of fusel oil : Benzol three quarts, wood alco- 
hol one quart, and paraffin wax eight ounces. Melt the 
wax in one-half pint of kerosene oil, add this to the 
other liquids and stir all together. This is a good, 
cheap and easily prepared remover. 

Banana Liquid. — From fusel oil we obtain amyl 
acetate, which in turn yields banana oil, so called be- 
cause of its odor, which is a very good imitation of 
that derived from the banana fruit. Amyl acetate is 
prepared by distilling a mixture of one part fusel oil 
with one part of concentrated sulphuric acid and twf) 
parts of potassium acetate. The distillate is first 
washed with water, then with a dilute solution of 
sodium carbonate, and is finally rectified after being 
dried over fused calcium chloride. Amyl acetate is 
insoluble in water, but is miscible in all proportions 
with alcohol. 

As banana liquid dries or evaporates very rapidly it 
is not well to take too large a surface at a time, but 
apply to a small area and remove stuff as soon as it is 
soft; then do another small space, adjoining the first 
space, and so continue until the whole is done. It is 
well here to remind you that after the treated part has 
become soft enough for scraping off it should be done 



176 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

at once, for if allowed to stand too long the mass will 
become hard and will have to be coated with remover 
again, thus doubling time and trouble, and also wast- 
ing remover. This will apply indeed to all the liquid 
removers. 

The odor of banana liquid is disagreeable to most 
people, but it does not injure the skin nor the brush, 
and it is very efficient on old varnish. It eats right 
down to the wood, and into the filler, if permitted. A 
less energetic remover should be used for work that 
has a light coating of varnish, or if only the upper 
part of the coating is to be taken off. The liquid will 
not injure wood, but if allowed to go too far will eat 
into the wood filler, which should be left intact. After 
the remover has done its work rub off with rag and 
benzine. 

Alkali Removers. — Alkalies arc cheap and very 
efficient, but hard on the skin, also on any painted or 
varnished work that should not be injured. One poimd 
of sal soda to the gallon of water w\\\ give a good 
remover, though it may be used stronger if necessary. 
Apply freely, and while the surface is still w^et begin to 
scrape with the steel brush or with steel wool, brush- 
ing out corners, etc., w-ith a stiff bristle or steel wire 
brush. When the work is done wash off with clear 
water, following with diluted vinegar, to neutralize 
the alkali. Then wMpe dry with a cloth, or as nearly 
dry as you can, leaving it to finish drying by evapora- 
tion. 

Ammonia water is good, and especially for cleaning 
out corners, beads, etc. For removing filler from the 
wood ammonia is very useful. But as ammonia 
darkens some woods in such cases you will have to 
follow with a bleach, as described in another place. 

A permanent emulsion may be made from ammonia 
two parts and turpentine one part, shaking together. 



REFINISHING OLD FURNITURE 177 

Potash with fresh lime, and sal soda with lime, with 
water, form good removers, but are very caustic. A 
powder may be made from caustic soda, one-eighth 
part, powdered lime three-eighths parts, and whiting 
two-eighths parts ; keep this powder in a dry place, and 
when wanted for use add water to form a paste like 
thick cream; this is spread on the old varnish and 
allowed to remain thirty minutes, to eat into the var- 
nish, which may then be scraped off. This powder, 
when mixed with water, one pound to the gallon, 
makes a fine cleanser for a dirty varnished surface. ^ 

Formula for Commercial Remover. — There is 
more than one formula for making commercial re- 
mover, and the following is given merely to indicate 
how such remover may be made. Pure crystallizable 
benzine 200 parts; denatured alcohol 200 parts; ace- 
tone 50 parts; paraffin wax 25 parts; common yellow 
rosin 25 parts; carbon disulphide 25 parts; and amyl 
acetate 5 parts. Dissolve the wax in the benzine, 
which has been made hot on a water bath, adding the 
other ingredients afterwards. By omitting the wax 
we have a liquid remover. For some purposes the 
liquid remover is preferred. 

Carbolic acid is a strong varnish remover, and some 
years ago was much used, but it is now replaced by 
less harmful agents. It is not safe to use, being so 
caustic, burning the flesh when in contact therewith, 
and it was impossible to use it and escape contact. 
Yet it was the principal thing in removers at first, 
the crude acid being used, this being combined with 
glycerine, though sometimes soft soap was added. 

Notes on Varnish Removers 

To remove shellac varnish apply the remover and 
when the varnish has become soft take hot water and 



178 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

with sponge and soap powder wash it off. Use steel 
wool or steel wire brush for parts not easy to get at 
with the sponge. 

Old varnish that contains rosin may easily be re- 
moved with alcohol, or benzol, or alkali. It may also 
be easy to remove by scraping or sandpapering. 

Commercial removers cost several times as much as 
alkali, alcohol, or benzol, and in some instances the old 
varnish can be removed without remover, as when very 
old and dry, when it may be sandpapered off or scraped. 

Don't use a remover that contains any fatty sub- 
stance, for this would stick in moldings, cracks or carv- 
ings, or in the pores of woods, where a filler has not 
been used. In such a case varnish will not do well, 
and bleaching will be impossible. 

Don't let the remover get down to the filler on hard- 
wood, and to prevent this remove the old soft stuff as 
promptly as possible and wash off with rag and alcohol. 
Should the remover, however, get at the filler, better 
apply more remover to it and remove the filler and 
refill. 

Should you grow dizzy or have any peculiar feel- 
ing while using a remover, get into fresh air as soon 
as possible, and do not resume the work unless plenty 
of fresh air is possible. Watch for the symptoms of 
remover-poisoning; dizziness and nausea often occur, 
sometimes there is a pricking sensation, the eyes smart, 
and no time should be lost in getting away from the 
poisonous vapors. Blindness has often followed work- 
ing with wood alcohol. If you will work at it, then 
every few minutes get a whiff at least of outdoor air. 



PRACTICAL NOTES ON VARNISHING 

The expression, "Drying from the bottom up/' or 
"from the top," means the difference between the sur- 
face drying of boiled Hnseed oil and the more uniform 
drying of raw linseed oil containing driers. Taken 
literally, the statement is not exactly correct, because 
oxidation or drying must occur at the surface of the 
varnish or the oil, and not at the bottom. But the 
term "drying from the bottom up" indicates a certain 
process that is different from the usual drying of var- 
nish, oil, or paint that has driers added. Varnish, as 
well as the other substances given, dries by the absorp- 
tion of oxygen from the outside, and raw oil, for ex- 
ample, will absorb oxygen more slowly than boiled oil, 
hence will become thicker slowly, and will become 
gummy before the surface dries. Take boiled oil and 
raw oil, side by side, and it will be found that the for- 
mer will have skinned over before the latter oil will 
show any signs of doing so. Remove the skin from 
the boiled oil and you will find that under it the oil 
is as soft as ever. 

Temperature of Varnishing Room. — Some 
rooms are heated up to 90 deg., but the heat seems to 
affect the woodwork. At a lower temperature some 
rooms normally heated to that high degree cause poor 
flowing of the varnish. Much depends upon the var- 
nish and the wood. The varnish may be a rapid drier, 
suitable to a high temperature, or a slow drier, best 
adapted to a low temperature. If the wood is not per- 
fectly dry it will be affected by extreme heat, which 
will result in shrinking. Hence, a low temperature is 

179 



180 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

best for wood that is not dry, and of course little ever 
is absolutely dry. Perfectly dry wood will not be 
affected by heat. Filling and rubbing and varnishing 
do best in a rather high temperature, yet not too high. 
Some finishers advise and use a temperature of no 
degrees. 

Why Varnish Cracks. — Cracking of varnish 
arises from any one of several causes. Varnish to 
which has been added driers to harden it will crack, 
especially if exposed to a strong sunlight. The cracks 
will be very fine and close, having the appearance of 
silk. Later on these fine cracks may open out much 
wider. Such cracks are sharp and clear-cut, like the 
edge of a razor blade, and they criss-cross in all direc- 
tions. If driers have been used in any of the under 
coats the fact will be indicated by the depth of the 
crack. Applying a hard, quick-drying varnish on a 
soft undercoat of varnish will generally cause cracking, 
which will, of course, affect the over-coating. The 
cracking may also be traced to the application of a 
glaze coat, applied prior to the varnishing, or to a 
gold size and turpentine flattening on an oil ground. 
Gold size cracks may be recognized by their tendency 
to follow the direction of the brush-work; they have 
softer and more rounded edges than those in the pre- 
vious case. They are also less numerous and more 
open in character. The application of a size coat upon 
a hard, non-porous ground previous to varnishing, 
such as occurs in cheap work or in revarnishing, will 
sometimes be productive of cracks, especially if the 
size be strong. The cracks are usually polygon shaped, 
with edges curling outward. 

Cloudy Shellac Varnish.— Shellac, a spirit var- 
nish, will become turbid and spongy if the vessel con- 
taining it is nut tightly sealed. The volatile spirits 
evaporate, leaving the water, which alcohol contains 



PRACTICAL NOTES ON VARNISHING 181 

in less or greater degree, and it is this water that 
causes the troubled look of the shellac. Withdraw the 
water by means of strips of gelatine, which will ab- 
sorb it entirely. These strips may be dried and are as 
good as before. Then add alcohol to the shellac. 

How TO Varnish. — For three-coat work let the 
first coat become perfectly dry before applying the 
second. This will allow for the application of the 
third coat much sooner than would otherwise be the 
case, as the whole will dry out much quicker and be 
ready sooner for rubbing. Don't rush the second coat 
onto the first, and then give longer time between the 
second and third coats. If the first coat is not dry it 
will retard the drying of both succeeding coats. If 
the second coat is allowed to stand a long time it forms 
a hard surface to which the next coat will not stick 
well, and it will also sweat when rubbed, if rubbed 
too close. Give at least double the time between the 
second and first coats that is allowed between the 
second and third coats. 

If only two coats are to be applied and it is your 
plan to rub close and fine it will be best to apply the 
second coat before the first becomes too dry to unite 
well; or a light coat may be applied first and be 
allowed to dry thoroughly and the second coat put on 
slightly heavier. For a careful rubber the latter 
method is best. 

Varnish Turns Green. — The turning of a var- 
nish finish green may be due to several causes. This 
discoloration is a bottle green. One cause is the use 
of a poor shellac, or one the solvent of which contains 
water. Application of shellac in humid weather; 
orange shellac will turn green, and bleached shellac 
is more likely to turn gray. The trouble may come 
from the stain used on the work. When a stain shows 
a greenish cast after being varnished over it is usually 



182 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

more pronounced when a pigment or varnish surfacer 
has been used, or when the varnish is appHed directly 
over the stain or filler. Also the trouble may be 
caused by the glue or some acids coming through the 
veneer, upon which the stain acts. Some think the 
varnish was too fresh or had not age enough. 

Of course there are other causes for this unsightly 
appearance in the finish on mahogany besides moisture 
in the shellac. It may be caused by a surfacer made 
from a poor grade of varnish or a surfacer containing 
too much pigment. A pigment surfacer should never 
be used on mahogany. If the pigment in the surfacer 
is a finely-ground and well-bolted high-grade silex, and 
is mixed in the right proportion with a good grade of 
varnish (not more than one pound of silex to one 
quart of varnish), it may safely be used on walnut. 
Only the best grade of shellac dissolved in alcohol, or 
methylated alcohol, should be used as a priming coat 
on mahogany, and then only a very thin coat should 
be applied. Some finishers do not use a primer on ma- 
hogany, but apply the varnish to the bare wood. But 
I prefer a priming coat of shellac, as it makes a better 
surface and results in smoother varnish. Bone-dry, 
bleached shellac is the best for this work, and should 
be of such a quality that it dissolves easily and thor- 
oughly in the solvent. If the gum contains a percent- 
age which is insoluble the whole lot should be dis- 
carded, as it would not be safe to use it on mahogany, 
as it is almost certain to show up gray in time. 

There is one other cause of this green hue to mahog- 
any which we might mention, and that is an inferior 
quality of stain. No matter whether it is an oil or 
water stain, the coloring matter should be thoroughly 
dissolved. If this coloring matter is merely held in 
suspension in the solvent instead of in solution, a very 
poor quality of work will be the result. Otie should be 



PRACTICAL NOTES ON VARNISHING 183 

on the lookout for things of this kind at all times. 
Strain the stain through cheese-cloth or book muslin, 
and if a considerable residue is found the stain had 
better be abandoned. There are stains which will pro- 
duce good results, and these are the ones to use on 
mahogany. 

Heavy Bodied Varnish. — There is a demand for 
a heavy bodied varnish, but the varnish maker hesi- 
tates to supply this demand because such a varnish is 
sure to give trouble. This varnish is not bodied up 
with high-grade gums, because the price will not ad- 
mit of it. It does not dry through like a medium 
bodied varnish. It is more likely to crack when dry. 

Varnish Does Not Flow Freely. — Varnish that 
has been stored in a freezing atmosphere will not flow 
freely; it should be placed in a vessel of hot water 
before using. Varnish that has been exposed to the 
air for some time will not flow well ; warm it and thin 
out a little with warm turpentine. 

Difference between Exterior and Interior 
Varnish. — The principal difference is in the amount 
of oil contained in the varnishes. Exterior varnish 
contains the most oil. Spar, outside varnish, contains 
the best of varnish gums, Kauri. It is used in the 
best exterior and interior varnishes. Painters some- 
times use a floor varnish for exterior work. Floor 
varnish, though made for inside work, contains more 
oil than other interior varnishes, hence is suitable for 
outside doors, etc. 

Composition of Spar Varnish.— The best is made 
from I GO lbs. of Kauri gum with 36 gals, of oil. One- 
fourth of the varnish gums go up the chimney in the 
boiling process. 

Composition of Interior Varnish.— -Fifteen gal- 
lons of oil to the hundred pounds of Kauri gum. Some 
varnish makers use about eight gallons of oil to the 



1S4 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

hundred of Kauri gum, but fifteen pounds of oil is 
a liberal allowance. 

Composition of Floor Varnish. — Proportions 
vary with different varnish makers, as might be ex- 
pected, but a very good grade is made upon the for- 
mula of 30 gals, of oil to the 100 lbs. of gum. Floor 
varnish needs to be rather elastic, hence the large 
amount of oil fitting it for exterior use also. 

How Varnish Is Made. — A brief account of the 
manufacture of varnish has been given in another part 
of this work, but this furnishes some more details. 
The raw materials are gum, free oil, and thinners. 
The latter is either turpentine or benzine, or a mixture 
of both. The usual batch of gum for a melting is 100 
lbs. This is put over a coke fire and heated until 
melted. As one-fourth of this gum escapes up the 
chimney, it leaves really only 75 lbs. of gum. The 
gum must be melted to exactly the right point, neither 
too much nor yet too little. Then some prepared oil is 
added to it. This is a specially prepared oil furnished 
by the oil crusher. It must be thoroughly clarified and 
all mucilaginous matter must be removed. Taking this 
prepared oil the varnish maker heats it up with litharge 
until the oil has dissolved a certain amount ; this is then 
called "lead oil." He next adds some umber and boils 
it in this special oil and it dissolves manganese diox- 
ide, and this makes "milk oil." It has drying prop- 
erties. He then takes borate of manganese and adds 
this to the special oil and heats it up to a high tempera- 
ture, and the oil dissolves the manganese borate, mak- 
ing "borate oil," which is a very pure oil. Now, de- 
pending on the treatment, he produces any different 
kind of properties he wishes the finished product to 
have. Now the gum is melted and in a liquid state. 
He adds a quantity of these oils to the melted gum 
liquid, which is then run back on to the fire and is 



PRACTICAL NOTES ON VARNISHING 1S5 

heated again to a certain temperature until gum and 
oil are thoroughly amalgamated; then the varnish is 
allowed to cool until it has reached a temperature 
where it is no longer dangerous from presence of fire 
and thinners. He adds the thinners, whatever they 
may be, and the varnish is then of the proper brush 
consistency. 

Now the varnish must be filtered, then placed in 
storage tanks to remain according to the quality of 
the product, or the use it is intended to serve, usually 
from three to eighteen months. Varnish fresh from 
the making does not work free under the brush, age 
giving it easy-flowing qualities that all varnishers ap- 
preciate. The term "free oil'* means oil that has been 
clarified by filtering and settling, in which condition 
it is nearly as clear as bleached oil. 

China Wood Oil. — China wood oil, also known as 
nut oil, cannot be used in its raw state, but must be 
"treated." It is very tough, and more impervious to 
water than linseed oil; it would be especially useful 
in floor varnish. But China oil has not met the expec- 
tations of varnish makers and users, as it presents too 
many difificulties in its preparation for use with the 
usual varnish gums and linseed oil. Where it has been 
tried in varnish it has shown some wonderful proper- 
ties, producing a varnish that high heat, as from a hot 
iron, boiling water, and alcohol, etc., has no effect 
upon. The writer has fully tested it in these respects. 



DESCRIPTION OF VARNISHES USED 

The making of oil varnishes is a very simple mat- 
ter, looked at from one angle, as the substances used 
are few in number, and the process of turning these 
substances into a viscous fluid about as simple as 
negotiating a pot of soup. Yet it is far more serious 
than this. The proper making of varnish requires the 
services of an expert workman, and the guidance of a 
trained chemist. It is quite possible for a workman 
used to handling varnishes to produce a pot of oil 
varnish; in fact, at one time much of the varnishes 
used in the shop was home-made. And at another not 
very remote period the varnish maker traveled from 
shop to shop and made the varnish on the spot to fill 
any order received. The varnish thus turned out was 
good and well suited for the purpose intended. But 
to-day there are so many uses for varnishes, so many 
diverse uses, that it requires the chemist, as stated, and 
the expert workman and varnish factory to produce 
the different kinds of varnish required. Briefly, the 
varnish gums are melted in large copper kettles, and 
when melted the requisite quantity of linseed oil, which 
has been heated to the same degree as the gums, is 
added. The gums and oil readily unite, but to make 
sure the boiling is continued for some time longer; 
this is to insure a perfect union of the gums and oil, 
so that they will not separate afterwards. Then the 
mass is allowed to cool down, after which it is thinned. 
The thinner may be either turpentine or benzine, de- 
pending on the grade. If turpentine is used the var- 
nish should not be permitted to get much below 300 

186 



DESCRIPTION OF VARNISHES USED 187 

deg, Fahr. With benzine it may be allowed to get 
much lower, owing to the very volatile nature of the 
benzine. 

If the varnish is not cooked enough it will work 
freely under the brush, but it will not hold luster nor 
wear well. 

In making a pale varnish bleached linseed oil or 
poppyseed oil is used. Such oils are prepared by boil- 
ing for a certain length of time with one or more of 
the various salts of the heavy metals, such as lead or 
manganese, or both in combination, the same being 
added to the melted gum. When the oil and gum 
have become thoroughly mixed and have obtained the 
required consistency the solvents are added, after 
which the liquid mass is filtered and stored in settling 
tanks. 

A varnish carrying loo lbs. of kauri gum and 25 
gals, of oil will require from 25 to 35 gals, of tur- 
pentine as a thinner; the gum will bulk 5 to 9 pounds 
to the gallon, according to loss in melting or fusing. 
The loss in thinning may be estimated at 10 per cent. 
This, with the loss in varnish bottoms or settlings, in 
kettle and tank, would result in a product of about 60 
gallons of salable varnish, providing 30 gallons of 
turpentine have been used for thinning. 

Short and Long Oil Varnish. — Short-oil varnish 
is one that contains from 5 to 15 gallons of oil. Long- 
oil varnish contains from 20 to 40 gallons of oil, both 
to the 100 lbs. of gum. Furniture varnish, hard oil 
finish, and cabinet varnishes are made on the short-oil 
basis. Rubbing varnish, polishing, architectural and 
interior varnishes are made on the long-oil basis. 
Piano varnish contains very little oil, hence is too hard 
for ordinary use; it dries very hard and takes a high 
polish. For interior work subject to much handling 
and where a brilliant gloss is desired, a hard gum 



188 THK EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

short-oil varnish should be used. Varnish intended to 
withstand water or moisture must contain enough gum 
to keep the oil from turning white. Railway, carriage 
body, coach and implement, and other durable var- 
nishes, usually contain an excess of oil. For furniture 
not subject to rough usage a rosin short-oil varnish 
will do, but articles receiving hard use will need a 
varnish rather long in oil. 

As a rule the varnish long in oil will wear better 
than a short-oil varnish, but its luster will not be as 
good. A long-oil varnish dries slowly, hardens more 
thoroughly than a short-oil varnish, and retains its 
elasticity better. 

Some Varnish Notes. — There is no essential dif- 
ference between coach and cabinet varnishes, they be- 
ing practically identical in manufacture and materials; 
it may be added, however, that, if anything, the for- 
mer are made from a better grade of materials and 
more care is taken in the making. It is not unusual 
to take several brands of cabinet and coach varnish 
out of one tank. 

Cheaper grades of varnish usually contain Manila 
copal and rosin. By treating rosin in a certain way, 
usually by means of lime, zinc salts, etc., the rosin is 
hardened and made tougher, and such gum, dissolved 
in a mixture of linseed oil and wood oil, gives a very 
durable varnish, though not one equal to kauri gum 
varnish. 

The best varnish, viewed from any standpoint, is 
that made from good copal gum, and of which gum 
there are many varieties. 

Copal varnish varies from a light amber to a dark 
rich brown, chiefly depending on the condition of the 
gum. As good a varnish can be made from a dark 
copal gum as from a paler sort; color does not influ- 



DESCRIPTION OF VARNISHES USED 189 

ence quality. If anything, the darker gum is the bet= 
ter, because a harder gum, 

Sandarach varnish is used for varnishing the sound- 
ing boards of pianos. The most brilhant varnish is 
produced from gum mastic; the hardest from gum 
sandarach, and the toughest from shellac, which is also 
a very hard varnish. 

Aged vs. New Varnish. — Old varnish wears better 
than new, but on cheap work the new varnish is ad- 
vised, as it will cost less, owing to one fact at least — 
it has not been stored to age or settle, and which adds 
to the cost of getting out a varnish. True, you may 
pay for old varnish and not get it. There is no easy 
way for the buyer to determine whether the varnish is 
old or new, so it is well to do the storing yourself if 
you want to make sure of age and settling of the foots 
in the oil. Buy it in drum or barrel, and draw it off 
as needed and without disturbing the settlings. 

Effects of Temperature. — Keep your varnish 
stock in an even temperature, ranging from 65 deg. to 
75 deg. The degree of humidity should be low. The 
temperature of the varnishing room should be about 
75 deg. This temperature makes the working of the 
varnish easy, and induces drying that will be more 
uniform, drying more from the bottom up, rather than 
from the top down. A high degree of heat has the 
effect of drying the surface of the varnish at once, 
and this prevents the under portion from drying as 
quickly as it otherwise would. Too high a tempera- 
ture — some advise as high as no deg. — will cause the 
undry varnish to flow out and form^ sags or curtains 
on work standing in a vertical position. 

Never allow the varnish to become chilled either in 
can or on the work. In cold weather it is advisable 
to do the varnishing in the forenoon or midday, when 



VA) THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

the sun is at its best, and by which the work will have 
longer to dry in a better heat than usually prevails 
during the night. But the shop or finishing room, or 
room where the varnished work stands, should be warm 
night as well as day. 

Characteristics of Good Varnish. — It should 
remain brilliant after the evaporation of the liquid 
medium and present a hard, dry surface, instead of a 
soft or tarnished surface. It should adhere closely to 
the surface of the article coated with it, and not scale 
when it becomes dry, even after a long time. Linseed 
oil varnish should be clear and show no turbidity or 
have any solid bodies in suspension. Leaving it at rest 
two weeks in a moderately warm place should clarify 
it; but if it contains rosin oil it will not do so. A very 
slight amount of sediment may be looked for in the 
best of varnish, less than one-fourth of one per cent, 
after standing several months; inferior varnish will 
often show as much as seven per cent., it being imper- 
fectly clarified. 

Heat-Resisting Varnishes. — Varnish designed to 
stand a high degree of heat is made from a gum that 
melts or discolors at a higher temperature than that 
which the varnish is subject to ; baking varnish is such 
a one. Asphaltum is soft, yet it stands a very high 
degree of heat and is useful for coating automobile 
parts and other articles. The high heat of the 
baking oven causes it to become very hard and 
lustrous. 

How Many Coats of Varnish? — As a general 
thing too many coats of varnish tends to cracking, 
owing to uneven drying; if each coat is dried thor- 
oughly before the succeeding one the cracking would 
be less if not entirely absent. But we must take the 
matter as it is — varnish is hardly ever given sufilicient 
time to dry right. An old shop rule runs thus j 



DESCRIPTION OF VARNISHES USED 191 

One coat of varnish never cracks, 
Two coats seldom crack, 
Three coats often crack, 
Four coats always crack. 

Like all other rules, this one has exceptions. The 
character of the work, whether cheap or high class, 
will determine the number of coats that are to be 
given. Also the time allowance for the drying of each 
coat. It is true that a large number of coats may be 
given without failure of the job to stand well. If the 
coats are all of the same varnish cracking is less likely 
to occur than when different varnishes are used. 

Varnishes differ in many ways; some require as 
much as seven days to dry, while others will dry inside 
of ten or twelve hours. Most of our varnish troubles 
come from insufficient time allowance for drying. A 
varnish is made for a certain kind of work and is made 
to fit any quality of work, by means of the price. In- 
terior varnish should not be used on exterior w^ork, 
nor exterior varnish on interior work, as a general 
thing at least. Rubbing varnish will not take the place 
of polishing varnish. The varnish that is made for 
agricultural implement and wagon work will not do 
for carriage or coach work. And so on. 

The high-pressure rate at which work is turned out 
in many shops, and the inferior varnishes, etc., addi- 
tion of driers, etc., all incidental to hurry-work, causes 
lots of trouble. Then the work may not be in proper 
condition for the varnish; it may be undry, dirty, 
dusty, even greasy. The room may be too cold at 
night, causing the varnish to creep. Maybe the varnish 
has had a chill after the varnished article has been 
placed in the drying room, which was too cold. Chill- 
ing causes an uneven flow of the varnish. The can 
of varnish, if shaken up, may cause pitting. When 



192 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

varnish is thus shaken up it is Hable to absorb some 
air, which before was on the top of the varnish; this 
is why some workmen let the open can of varnish 
stand exposed for a Httle while after it has been shaken 
up in the handling. It allows the air or gas to escape. 
Then careless work in the application of varnish, as 
when it is too heavy, the drying being retarded and 
crimping, a sort of ridgy appearance, resulting. Or 
thinning the varnish, injuring its gloss. Thinning is 
often done to make the varnish flow easier. 

Some varnish will dry on the surface, giving the 
impression that it is dry clear through. If then another 
coat is applied there will be varnish trouble; allow 
varnish at least two days for drying before rubbing 
or applying another coat. Varnishing in a cold or 
damp room will be apt to cause varnish trouble. Flow- 
ing varnish, having much elasticity, due to its oil con- 
tent, is the most injured by thinning. In fine cabinet 
finishing it is sometimes the practice to reduce the 
first coat of varnish a great deal, using turpentine, so 
that it will penetrate the wood better, act as binder, 
seal the pores of the wood, and thus make a good 
foundation for the succeeding coats. After that coat 
the varnish is used straight, no thinning, and ample 
time is allowed for drying and hardening. If it ap- 
pears necessary to thin the varnish, first warm the 
turpentine and varnish, in separate vessels, then add 
the turpentine gradually, shaking the varnish now and 
then, which will cause perfect amalgamation in the 
end and much better than when the thinning is done 
in the cold state. Varnish should never be thinned 
on the last coat. If the varnish or room is cold, you 
do not need more thinners, but more heat. 

Another trouble to be apprehended from using tur- 
pentine for thinning is that it may not be straight 
spirits; some alleged turpentine will be found to con- 



DESCRIPTION OF VARNISHES USED 193 

tain as high as fifty per cent, of adulteration, usually 
petroleum oil. Such a turpentine will cause the var- 
nish to be sticky when dry. Benzine would be safer, 
for it could not injure the varnish and would evaporate 
quickly and entirely and not injure the gloss of the 
varnish as turpentine will. 

Varnish is a delicate liquid to manipulate, or at 
least the better grades are, for the finer the varnish the 
more delicate it is, and the more careful should one 
be in its handling. 

To give the best results varnish must have ventila- 
tion and fresh air for drying. The temperature must 
be right, "j^ deg. at least. If, after all has been done 
right and the varnish does not do right, better inter- 
view its maker, for he may be able to explain its action. 
If you find a lot of sediment at the bottom of a barrel 
of varnish it indicates that its maker did not filter the 
goods, as should be done in the case of high-grade 
goods. A varnish properly made, allowed to settle, 
and placed in clean containers, must, of course, come 
forth bright and clean, allowing the worker a chance 
to do clean work. 

Flatting Varnish. — The object with the use of 
flatting varnish is to simulate the appearance of rubbed 
varnish. Like any other imitation, it is inferior to the 
original. Here are a few of the several formulas used 
in its preparation. 

I. Dissolve four ounces of shredded wax in one 
quart of turpentine, which may be cold or hot, the wax 
melting sooner in the hot turpentine than in the cold. 
In another vessel place one gallon of hard drying copal 
varnish or quick-drying rubbing varnish, and place 
this vessel in another containing hot water, and place 
on back of stove. When both are heated sufBciently 
they may be mixed together and be well shaken. After 
about two days the varnish will be ready for use. It is 



194 JHE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

very important that the wax and varnish be well mixed 
in order to get good working and wearing results. 

2. Heat on back of stove or on hot water bath one 
gallon of hard oil finish ; shred fine six ounces of bees- 
wax and add to the varnish; shake or stir the mass 
well. Then stir in two ounces of sweet oil, following 
this with three pints of turpentine ; this will make about 
two gallons of flatting varnish. While still warm 
filter or strain through cheese-cloth into varnish cans, 
leaving the cans open until the varnish becomes cool. 
The sweet oil is intended to retard the setting of the 
varnish, which may prove too rapid for spreading 
unless thus treated. Some workmen object to the 
addition of the sweet oil, and in this case there may 
be added a tablespoon ful of gold size japan to the 
gallon of varnish, if it is hard oil varnish; or twice 
as much in the case of exterior varnish. This will 
counter the effects of the sweet oil, which some think 
makes the varnish too soft. 

3. This is a factory formula. It is included here 
merely to show how it is prepared commercially, with 
no intention of having the wood-finisher prepare it 
this way. Saponify ten gallons of China wood oil by 
boiling in an ordinary varnish kettle with eleven gal- 
lons of water, in which is dissolved eight pounds of 
sal soda and one pound of granulated caustic soda. 
In another vessel dissolve twenty pounds of alum in 
twenty pounds of water, to be used later on. When 
the oil shows complete saponification and drops heavily 
from the stirrer add twenty-two pounds of pale rosin, 
pulverized, so that it will melt quicker. As soon as 
the rosin is melted and thoroughly incorporated with 
the soap, add the alum solution, which will cause the 
mass to separate upon stirring. Let the mass stand 
over night, then pour off all the water possible, or 



DESCRIPTION OF VARNISHES USED 195 

siphon off with a hose. Place kettle again on the fire 
and drive off remainder of water by heat. Then dis- 
solve residue in seventy gallons of turpentine. Mix 
equal parts by measure of this dilute soap and any 
Manila or Kauri gum you may wish to dry flat. Rub- 
bing varnish is most easily flatted, while a slow-drying 
coach or exterior varnish will not suit the purpose. 

You will note that in this factory formula no wax 
is used to flat the varnish. There are other substances 
that may be used in making flatting varnish, such as 
China clay and glue. Japan wax may be used. Glue 
is cheaper than beeswax. Or the dull effect may be 
produced by means of an alkali, which is used, as you 
will note by the foregoing formula. But alkali pro- 
duces an emulsion inimical to good wearing. Some add 
kerosene oil to varnish, saying that it gives the flat 
or dull effect and a very uniform surface, but it is 
probable that such a varnish would not give satisfac- 
tion. Some add raw linseed oil to real wax flatting 
varnish instead of sweet oil, two ounces of the oil to 
the gallon of varnish. The linseed oil serves as a 
binder, assists the spreading of the varnish, making 
it flow better and leaving no brush marks or laps. 
But there is danger of the linseed oil and wax separat- 
ing instead of binding, whereas no such objection has 
been urged against sweet oil. 

Flatting varnish should be made and used thin, for 
this will insure free flow and even surface. Be care- 
ful in any case against laps. Use a badger hair brush 
and lay the work off one way, feathering it the oppo- 
site way; work the brush rapidly, as the varnish sets 
quickly. Get a smooth, uniform surface, for a 
streaked, ropy job looks very bad and cannot be 
amended except by removal. Real wax flatting will 
be found more difficult to work, owing to the wax, 



196 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

than the factory article. If too much wax is added 
the varnish will be too soft ; it is well to tr}^ the surface 
to ascertain how hard it is before you go too far. 

New work may be filled in the usual manner, shel- 
lacked, and be coated with two coats of flatting var- 
nish. Use clean pots and brushes; finish parts at a 
time and so avoid laps. 

Flatting varnish is said to have originated with car 
finishers, who wanted to save time in producing a flat 
effect on inside of cars. It is not a durable finish ; 
where there are turned parts, balusters, etc., difficult 
to rub, where the job is one of hand-rubbed work, flat 
varnish does very well. 

Practical Varnish Notes 

Allow a coating of varnish ample time for drying. 

Use that varnish that was intended for the work you 
have in hand. 

Never wet the brush wath oil or turpentine while 
varnishing. 

The less varnish is worked under the brush the 
better will be its luster. 

If the brush is too small for the work, or if you 
work the varnish too long, you will likely have brush- 
marks. 

Thin varnish does not bear out well; if too heavy 
it will not spread and level up smoothly. 

Light-bodied varnish will flow out easily and not 
show brush-marks as heavy-bodied varnish often does. 

Heavy-bodied varnish should not be brushed out 
much, but be flowed on full, so that it will level-up 
itself. 

Use clean overalls, as well as clean brushes, clean pot 
and clean varnish. Before starting the job see that the 
surface is clean. 



DESCRIPTION OF VARNISHES USED 197 

Often a varnished surface, some hours after var- 
nishing, appears quite dry, and it is, but the surface 
only, with the under part soft. 

Better use a paler varnish rather than thin a dark 
one down to make it look paler on the work. 



VARNISH ILLS— CAUSE AND CURE 

Blistering. — Caused by oil or moisture under the 
varnish coat, or by heat acting on undry wood. Or 
using an elastic varnish over shellac as a first-coater ; 
if the heat or rays of the sun fall directly on the work 
the shellac will soften and the varnish will blister. 
Remedy, removal of the varnish. 

Blooming. — Too much driers, or varnish too new, 
or adulterated oil under the varnish, or undercoat not 
dry, or dampness affecting the undry varnish. Am- 
monia fumes in the air, also frost, will cause bloom- 
ing. Cure : Rub surface with waste, dipped in water, 
then in crude oil. Gas causes it. A bluish film over- 
spreads the varnish ; the finest varnishes are most liable 
to bloom. 

Brush Marks. — Usually caused by working the 
brush too much when applying varnish; sometimes 
heavy varnish will do it if workman is not careful. 
A brush too small for the area being done will some- 
times cause brush marks. 

Blotching. — An aggravated form of pinholing. 
Caused by oily or damp surface; or turpentine- 
thinned varnish ; or improper thinning fluid. Bad cases 
also known as pitting and pocking. 

Bubbling. — When the varnish is too warm little air 
bubbles form under the brushing; not serious, simply 
cool the varnish. 

Brittleness. — Cheap varriish usually contains 
rosin, a brittle substance, together with benzine, with 
a very little oil; hence a brittle varnish, producing 
a finish that easily chips. 

198 



VARNISH ILLS— CAUSE AND CURE 199 

CHILLING.—Varnish will chill in cold weather un- 
less kept in a warm place, and the same with the ap- 
plied varnish, which will show a sandy or gritty sur- 
face. The grit is simply particles of gum; heat the 
varnish and these particles unite again with the oil, 
either in the can or on the varnished surface. A good 
way to heat the varnish in the can is to- set it on two 
heated bricks, or on back of stove, with stopper out. 
Then set it away in a warm place. It injures varnish 
to become very cold. Heat does no injury. 

Crimping. — Same as Wrinkling and Crinkling. 
Causes, too heavy a varnish, exposure to sudden 
change of temperature, and application of the finishing 
coat before the under coat is dry. 

Creeping or Crawling. — The varnish does not lie 
where placed, but creeps up in little patches. Worse 
in cold weather in the absence of heat. Also on old 
glossy varnished surfaces. Remedy, wet the parts with 
vinegar or benzine, or even rubbing with a rag wet 
with clear water. Sometimes caused by greasy or oily 
surface. In this case rub with benzine. Vinegar also 
good. 

Chipping. — Enameling most affected. Caused by 
lack of harmony between the different coats of varnish 
used, they not uniting perfectly. Or brittle coating 
under. Or undry undercoating, or exposure to cold 
during drying, or poor ventilation, varnishing in a cold 
room, or in a room with a damp floor. 

Checking. — Caused by fumes of ammonia, coal 
gas, washing with hot water, or exposure to sudden 
and violent changes of temperature while drying. 
Sometimes called Crumbling. 

Silking. — In its mildest form known as enameling. 
Appearance of silked varnish similar to silk cloth, 
hence its name. Cause may be working in a cold room, 
or application of varnish to a very cold surface, or 



200 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

exposure to cold draft of air while drying, or undry 

nndercoats, or miKiri;^ tirrpentine with the varni^^b 
in the cukl. 

Sinking In. — Or assumiiif^ a dead appearance. Is 
due to various causes. If the foundation on open- 
^s^^rained wood is imperfect the varnish will sink into 
the pores, which should have been well filled. The 
finer the varnish the more likely it is to sink in on a 
poor foundation. Another cause is found in the thin- 
ning- of the varnish from start to finisli. Other causes 
are applying- varnish over an undry coat, badly sea- 
soned wood, using- varnish from a newly opened can. 

Sweating. — When glos's* appears after the rubbing- 
it is called sweating. Causes, ru])bing- the varnish be- 
fore it is dry and hard all through ; to cure, let the 
coating become hard, then rub again, and apply the 
next coat. Long-oil varnish is the most apt to sweat 
because it contains considerable oil, making it slow in 
drying hard. In case the rubbed varnish that sweated 
is one that never does dry hard better apply a coat 
of hard varnish, and then rub again. 

Seedy Varnish. — See Chilling. 

Sandy Appearance. — The varnished surface looks 
as if sand had been cast over it; it is an aggravated 
case of chilling. Caused by unripe varnish, chilling 
of varnish by extreme cold weather, skinning over of 
varnish before it is used, dirt or pumicestone grit, 
granular particles from varnish brush, cliemical change 
in varnish due to old age, and precipitation of the gum 
by extreme cold. 

Sagging. — The varnish has been applied too freely 
or the coating is too heavy, resulting in the formation 
of "curtains" or "festoons," as they are called. 

Sissing or Cissing. — Same as Crawling, which see. 

Tears. — Small but heavy runs, usually about the 
moldings, etc. Cause, uneven application of varnish. 



VARNISH ILLS— CAUSE AND CURE 201 

Turning White.— Due to heat or moisture or 
both on varnish containing rosin. Any varnish, how- 
ever, that is applied over Hquid filler will turn white if 
water stands on it a little while, due to the moisture 
penetrating the coating down to the filler, which will 
then turn white and show through the upper coating 
as white ; moreover, it will scratch white. It may take 
two or three hours for the water to get down to the 
filler, but if left on long enough it will get there. 
Liquid filler and shellac are alike in the matter of 
sealing the pores of the wood, while the coat of varnish 
simply remains on top and does not penetrate through 
into the wood. 

Wrinkling. — Same as Crimping and Crinkling. 

Pitting or Pinholing. — Shows little pockmarks, 
caused by changes of temperature, or draft striking 
the varnish while it is drying. Applying varnish over 
cold or insufficiently dry undercoat, or over a glossy 
surface without sandpapering it. Mostly result of 
poor filling. On close-grained wood where no filler 
has been used if the first coat of varnish has not been 
thinned properly it does not penetrate the wood as it 
should; result, lots of tiny so-called pinholes. 

Flatting. — Deadening of the finish coat, caused 
by undry undercoat. Also to poor filling on vinsea- 
soned lumber. See also Sinking In. 

Loss OF Brilliancy. — This is thought by some to 
be due to an improperly cooked varnish, but this is not 
always if ever so. As we have already pointed out, 
loss of luster or deadening of a varnish is mostly due 
to poor foundation, the oil and gum sink in, leaving 
only a very thin coating on the surface. A linseed oil 
varnish containing some China wood oil stands out on 
a poor foundation better than the varnish containing 
only the linseed oil and turpentine. 

Skinning Over of Varnish, — If oil varnish is 



202 THE EXPERT WOOO FINISHER 

left exposed to the air a skin forms over it, and unless 
this skin is removed by straining it will cause a specky 
appearance of the varnish coating. Better strain such 
varnish through cheese-cloth before using. Exposure 
to the air for some time causes oxidation of the var- 
nish, making it "fatty,'' in which condition it is not 
fit for use. 



SHELLAC VARNISH 

Lac is a resinous incrustation excreted by a scale 
insect known as Tachardia lacca. The mouth parts of 
this insect consist of a beak or sucking apparatus 
combined with a pointed lancet. With this lancet the 
insect pierces the bark of the twig of a tree, and then 
inserts a sucking tube and draws up the sap. The 
insect may be likened to an animated siphon, since the 
sap, continually sucked up through the beak, is, after 
modification and absorption of some of its products, 
given out as an excretion at the anal end of the body. 
This secretion solidifies in contact with the air, and 
thus there is gradually formed around the body a scale 
or cell, known as lac. Were only one insect present 
on a branch the scale would appear as a circular, dome- 
shaped, reddish excrescence on the surface of the bark. 
Owing, however, to the production by the female of 
a very large number of eggs, often as many as one 
thousand, and the habit of the insects, which is in- 
deed common to many of the family, of living and 
feeding gregariously, closely packed together on one 
twig, the scales or cells coalesce during their forma- 
tion and result in the continuous incrustation on the 
twigs, which on collection forms the article of com- 
merce known as stick-lac. 

From stick-lac we get the familiar "shellac'* or shell- 
lac= There is also button-lac, plate4ac, and seed-lac, 
all in different forms, and from which each gets its 
name. 

Natives of India, where the lac is found, strip the 
trees of the heavily coated twigs and limbs and place 

203 



204 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

them in hot water, which soon dissolves the resinous 
matter, freeing insects and bits of wood and also 
washing out the coloring matter deposited by the in» 
sects. The separated lac is then taken out and dried, 
and later on is placed in strong coarse cotton bags. 
These bags are then held near a fire which, while 
melting the resin, does not scorch the muslin. The 
bags are then squeezed and twisted. This treatment 
forces out the resin in a thin film, which is received 
upon strips of wood, w^here the resin quickly hardens, 
when the lac is easily broken off in the form of thin 
pieces, something like thin gelatin or glue, the form 
being well known to shellac users. 

The best grade of shellac is that which is freest from 
all impurities. As these impurities are dark it follows 
that the best shellac is of the lightest color ; it is a light 
orange or brownish cast. When they are squeezing 
the bag some of the lac falls to the ground, in which 
case it takes on the form of a drop or button, hence 
its name, button-lac. If these buttons spread out large 
they become plate-lac. Stick-lac is the resin still on 
the twigs, which have been broken for convenience in 
carrying. Under the lac trees are found quantities of 
lac that has been forced from the tree by wind or 
other means, and all this is carefully gathered up by 
the natives and sold as seed-lac. Shellac is superior 
to the rest because the best prepared. 

Pure shellac is simply a combination of several 
peculiar resins combined and mixed together as only 
the little lac insect can do it. This lac is important 
because of its adaptability for making varnish. Lac 
is easy of dissolution. In alcohol or alkaline solution, 
borax being the usual alkali used, lac gives a fine, hard 
varnish, capable of taking a depth and brilliancy of 
polish unexcelled by any other resin or manufactured 
varnish. 



SHELLAC VARNISH 205 

Adulteration of Shellac— It is easy enough to 
get pure orange shellac from any reputable dealer, but 
white shellac is very liable to be adulterated because it 
is very easy to do it. This is done in the bleaching 
process; it is more than likely to contain some water 
and some substance to add to its weight and make it 
whiter. 

Where orange shellac is adulterated the precipita- 
tion and drying differ from the action of the pure gum. 
If rosin is present the alcohol will hold it in solution 
and precipitate the shellac, the shellac being the hardest 
of the two to dissolve. Few substances will dissolve 
shellac. Rosin causes shellac varnish to dry soft. A 
finisher can apply two coats of pure shellac varnish in 
one day, and rub down each coat and get good results. 
But rosin shellac will remain tacky for hours, so that 
not more than one coat can be rubbed in a day. But 
note here that one coat of pure shellac varnish is all 
that should be applied in one day if the best work is 
desired. As many as three coats of pure shellac var- 
nish may be applied in one day and be rubbed down, 
but this is not advised. An expert finisher says : "A 
pure shellac varnish should be fit to handle in six min- 
utes after application, and be fit to sandpaper in thirty, 
without gumming the sandpaper. The second coat 
should dry in seven minutes, having been applied within 
thirty minutes after the first coat. In two hours apply 
the third coat, which should be hard to. the touch in 
ten minutes. In one hour after applying the third 
coat it should be fit to rub down with oil and pumice- 
stone." To all of which we object as being too fast 
for durability. 

Bleached White Shellac. — ^The orange-colored 
shellac can be treated to eliminate the color and pro- 
duce a colorless or white gum shellac. This can be 
done in various ways, one way being as follows : Boil 



206 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

tlie orange shellac in a weak solution of carbonate of 
potash, and when dissolution is effected collect the 
shellac, inclt it under water, and while it is soft pull it 
until it has a satiny appearance. 

Another way is to boil the shellac in a weak solution 
of potash, and while it is jn a melted state pull and 
work it until white enough. Then remelt it and pull 
again in clean warm water. The two methods given 
are for small quantities, by hand work. On a com- 
mercial scale the process is more tedious, requiring at 
least twelve operations, as follows : 

Crushing the raw shellac to a powder, so that it will 
be more readily soluble in the alkaline solution; sep- 
aration of the coloring principle from the resin ; prep- 
aration of the bleaching agent, or hypochlorite of pot- 
ash or soda; treatment of the liquetied shellac by the 
bleaching agent; diluting the bleached shellac alkaline 
solution in water; preparing the sulphuric acid for 
neutralizing the shellac alkaline solution of shellac; 
neutralizing the shellac alkaline solution by the use of 
dilute sulphuric acid, which coincidentally precipitates 
the bleached shellac; filtering the precipitate or pulp of 
the bleached shellac to develop whiteness and elas- 
ticity ; hardening and whitening process of the sulphur- 
ous acid bath, w^hich prevents to a very great extent 
the white shellac turning yellow when exposed to the 
light ; drying the bleached shellac ; and crushing the 
bleached shellac. 

Here is a shop method : Dissolve one pound of 
orange shellac in two pounds of strong alcohol and 
leave it in a warm place for a few days. Then prepare 
a mixture of one pound of jo per cent, bleaching pow- 
der with three pounds of water, filter through a linen 
cloth, and wash the residue with one-half pound of 
water, the two waters being united and mixed with 
33 per cent, aqueous solution of potash until no fur- 



SHELLAC VARNISH 207 

ther precipitate is formed, four and one-half ounces 
of potash being usually enough per pound of bleach. 
The filtrate from this treatment is stirred into the 
warm solution of shellac, and at the end of thirty min- 
utes sufficient hydrochloric acid to produce a decided 
acid reaction, whereupon the shellac will be deposited 
as a perfectly white mass, which is removed from the 
liquid and washed with boiling water until the wash- 
ings cease to run off milky. The shellac is then molded 
into strips, which are dried in the sun and open air. 
The acid liquor being neutralized with quicklime can 
be distilled to recover the alcohol. 

Bleached shellac comes in granular form for easy 
"cutting" or dissolution in alcohol; it is more difficult 
to cut than orange shellac. Some samples show more 
difficulty than others, all depending upon the care used 
in the bleaching, for if any lime is left through scant 
washing it will be harder for the alcohol to act upon 
the shellac. It is advised to place such shellac in clear 
warm water, to draw out the lime, after which the 
shellac may be thoroughly dried. This is worth try- 
ing. When the gum is placed in the alcohol for making 
the varnish the mass had better be placed on a hot 
water bath, which will facilitate the process, shaking 
it occasionally. Add two pounds of the gum to one 
gallon of alcohol and strain carefully after the gum has 
dissolved ; some of it may not dissolve, and it is this 
that must be strained out. Keep the shellac in a non- 
metallic vessel, tightly stoppered. 

Contact with metal darkens shellac, and this dis- 
coloration may be removed by the addition of a very 
little oxaHc acid. It is said that the addition of a little 
oxalic acid to the white varnish at the time it is being 
dissolved in alcohol will prevent the discoloration. 

White shellac is apt to deteriorate with age, and 
when it does the fact may be attributed to its improper 



208 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

preparation; in this condition it is stringy and does 
not readily dissolve in alcohol. White shellac gum on 
hand for a long time may as well be discarded. 

In the preparation of bleached shellac it is very im- 
portant that every vestige of lime (chloride) be washed 
out, or that the acid be strong enough to neutralize 
the lime. The granulated form of white shellac is par- 
ticularly liable to work badly, hence it is best to buy it 
in hanks, keeping these under water, changing the 
water frequently and skimming off the scum from 
time to time. Or the hanks may be kept in a crate or 
barrel with water at the bottom, covered over with 
burlap or other suitable material. When wanted for 
use the shellac must be thoroughly dried and every 
vestige of water removed. 

Shellac is refined in the following manner: In a 
suitable boiler one and one-half parts of soda are dis- 
solved with forty-five parts of water; to this is added 
in gradual portions as it dissolves five parts of gum 
shellac. This gives a violet-red color, with more or 
less traces of fatty substances. After complete solu- 
tion the mixture is boiled for a few minutes, and the 
boiler is then covered with a wooden top, which is 
cemented down. The contents of the boiler are cooled 
slowly, and the grease on the surface of the solution 
is skimmed off, the shellac is precipitated with sul- 
phuric acid, drop by drop, and wtII washed with water 
until all acid reaction is removed. The shellac is then 
put in boiling water and softened so that it may be 
worked into plaits or rods, and it is hardened by plac- 
ing it in cold water containing some glycerine. The 
refined shellac should have a silvery to yellowish-white 
fracture. It should be perfectly dry, and soluble in 
alcohol. 

When overtreated with chloride of lime white shellac 
is partly insoluble in alcohol, as has been pointed out. 



SHELLAC VARNISH 209 

Formerly no treatment for its restoration was known, 
but it has been discovered that if such shellac is first 
moistened with one-twentieth of its weight of ether 
and allowed to swell in a close vessel its solubility in 
alcohol will be restored. 

The stronger the alcohol the better its cutting power. 
Sometimes it is well to pour off the first alcohol after 
it has been on the gum a while and replace it with fresh 
alcohol. 

Sometimes white shellac will show a decided acid 
reaction, due to insufficient washing of the bulk shellac 
after its precipitation by sulphuric acid. Such a shel- 
lac is always difficult to dissolve. To neutralize the 
acidity add two ounces of caustic soda to one pint of 
boiling water, adding this to ten gallons of the shellac 
varnish. This will correct the acidity and make the 
shellac very soluble in alcohol. 

The affinity of alcohol for water is so great that if 
only a very little water is added to a solution of alcohol 
shellac the water will combine with the alcohol, while 
part of the shellac will precipitate or separate from 
the solution. It is for this reason that the nearer *'ab- 
solute" the alcohol is the better it will dissolve shellac 
gum, white or orange. The alcohol should be at least 
95 per cent, strength. The least particle of water in 
it will result in the precipitation of more or less gum. 

Orange Shellac. — Like the white variety, orange 
shellac should dissolve in alcohol without residue — this 
whether wood, grain, or denatured alcohol is used. A 
great deal depends upon the method employed in mak- 
ing the shellac, on the presence or absence of rosin, of 
which more further on. As to orange shellac, given 
the same degree of strength of solvent, there will 
always be a uniform result in the varnish making. Ex- 
periments have shown that with the best grade of al- 
cohol there is no dift'erence in the dissolving power 



210 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

of wood, grain, or denatured alcohol. There is a 
difference in behavior of grain and wood alcohol on 
crude lac. Whereas grain alcohol dissolves both the 
lac and the coloring matter associated with it, the 
wood alcohol dissolves only the lac. By treating one 
hundred pounds of crude lac with methyl (wood) alco- 
hol in an extraction apparatus similar to that of Sox- 
hlett, a chemist (Singh) was able in the course of 
two or three hours to extract a product which is said 
to be equal to the best on the market. He suggested 
that the lac be placed on the market in the form of a 
coarse powder, instead of the shell form, and thus do 
away with the necessity of stretching the lac while in 
the plastic stale, with the object of eliminating the 
rosin which is added at this stage to facilitate the 
manipulation. The addition of rosin to shellac is car- 
ried on so systematically, and the different brands are 
so well known, that a change is scarcely likely. 

Concerning the use of wood and grain alcohol in 
shellac, while both have equal power in dissolving the 
shellac gum, yet there is a difference in the working 
qualities of the two. Grain alcohol works freer under 
the brush, sets reasonably slow, and dries hard. Wood 
alcohol sets so quickly as to make it difficult to brush 
out; it cannot be used in French polishing because it 
"drags" so badly. Although it sets quickly it hardens 
slower than grain alcohol shellac. Denatured alcohol 
contains ten per cent, of wood alcohol, and to that 
extent at least is inferior to pure grain alcohol. Some 
denatured alcohol contains mineral oil, benzine or kero- 
sene, rendering it unfit for either dissolving or thinning 
shellac. Sometimes shellac varnish will be found to 
contain turpentine. In any case the denatured alcohol 
containing any of these liquids will, when mixed with 
an equal amoiint of water, give a milk-white liquid. 



SHELLAC VARNISH 211 

But when alcohol has been denatured with wood alco- 
hol alone no such effect is produced. 

Preparing Shellac Varnish. — An authority- 
states that about four-fifths of the shellac made in this 
country is made by dissolving shellac, either white or 
orange, in a barrel suspended on a center and revolved 
at a speed of about fifty revolutions a minute. The 
resultant varnish is rather thin, having a tendency to 
settle. A good bodied shellac may be made by adding 
twenty- four ounces of the best orange shellac, say, 
D. C. or V. S. O., to the gallon of 95 per cent, alco- 
hol. With brown button-lac, which is heavier and con- 
tains impurities, it will take two pounds to make a var- 
nish equal in body to the former. To make a white 
shellac varnish add two pounds of white shellac to 
three quarts of 95 per cent, alcohol; this gives a good 
bodied varnish, using grain shellac. These varnishes 
may, of course, be reduced for use. 

For shop use add as much as four pounds of shellac 
to the gallon of alcohol, or as much as the alcohol will 
cut, and then it may be thinned as used. It should be 
kept in a warm place in cold weather. 

If it becomes too thick from evaporation, or has 
deteriorated from having stopper off, in which case 
moisture from the air will have weakened the alcohol, 
try adding a little turpentine to it and shaking it well. 

On the commercial scale shellac is usually cut in the 
proportion of three, four and five pounds of lac to the 
gallon of alcohol, while an extra heavy shellac var- 
nish is made by using six and three-quarter pounds 
of lac to the gallon. Use 95 per cent, alcohol. As one 
gallon of 95 per cent, alcohol weighs 7.75 to 7.80 
pounds per gallon, the solution will contain about 50 
per cent, of shellac by weight. 

Artificial Shellac. — Many furniture makers use 



212 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

shellac over paste filling, thus saving one coat of var- 
nish, while the shellac stops suction that may exist 
from the failure of the filler to do its work perfectly. 
At much less cost an artificial shellac may be used, one 
having good surfacing qualities and one that may be 
thinned with benzine or turpentine. There is an arti- 
ficial kauri gum known as French kauri. Here is a 
factory formula: Orange lac lOO lbs.; Artificial 
kauri 50 lbs. ; common rosin 50 lbs. ; gum camphor i 
oz. ; acetone 5 gals. ; wood alcohol 30 gals. 

The true color of orange shellac is hard to get in 
imitation brown or orange shellac, but one ounce of 
tincture of aurine, w^hich is of mineral origin, will 
color a gallon of shellac substitute to the required 
true shellac color. Aurine will dissolve in either wood 
or grain alcohol. The ready-made artificial or substi- 
tute shellac may be bought; it is not readily made in 
the shop. 

Considerable artificial shellac is used for dipping; 
there is also used a mixture of equal parts of genuine 
shellac and rosin, two and one-half pounds of each to 
the gallon of alcohol, wood or denatured. The rosin 
is pulverized. This gives a very dark shellac, and a 
lighter one may be made with white shellac and a paler 
rosin, such W W, or water white. Add more alcohol 
if thinner varnish is desired. Coloring is usually added 
to dipping shellacs. 

An excellent imitation of orange shellac may be 
made from a combination of Manila gum, prepared 
rosin, and a substitute alcohol ; this latter is made from 
a mixture of liquid ingredients, and the resultant 
product presents the aspects of a variety of lacquer, 
while disclosing some of the peculiar features of gen- 
uine orange shellac with regard to drying and rubbing 
properties. Alcohol forms a part of the liquid solvent. 
Manila dust, with or without rosin, is used in place 



SHELLAC VARNISH 213 

of shellac. Manila dust dissolves quickly at an ordi- 
nary temperature in alcohol, producing a quick-drying 
varnish, but while quite transparent it does not flow 
well, which, however, is characteristic of all spirit 
varnishes. 

The liquid solvent mentioned is composed of four 
parts wood alcohol, two parts fusel oil, and one part 
benzol, the liquids being thoroughly mixed. In the 
mixture is placed a fractional part of aurine, which is 
dissolved under constant stirring. When the solution 
is complete it is allowed to settle and clarify before 
using. One ounce of aurine is sufficient for one gallon 
of imitation shellac varnish. 

Here is another factory method of making the imi- 
tation shellac varnish. Manila dust lOO lbs. ; prepared 
rosin 50 lbs. ; wood alcohol 25 gals. ; naphtha 5 gals. ; 
acetone 3 gals. These substances are placed in a re- 
volving petroleum barrel, the barrel turning for about 
four hours without cessation. By that time the solids 
will have dissolved, then a quart of tincture of aurine 
is added. The liquid will clarify some if allowed to 
stand some time before vising. 

The above formulas and methods are not intended 
for the shop, for the workman would find them 
impossible, the idea being to give him a clear 
understanding of the processes by which such 
goods are made. The descriptions are merely edu- 
cational. 

Here, however, is a shellac substitute that can be 
made in the shop very readily. Take four pounds of 
China clay or finely pulverized silica and stir into it 
one quart of good japan driers, beating the mass to a 
smooth paste. While stirring briskly add one and one- 
half gallons of the best hard-oil finish or similar grade 
of varnish, and then let the mass stand an hour or so; 
finally strain through a fine sieve; thin out with tur- 



214 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

pentine or benzine for use. Have it very thin for soft 
wood, but heavier for hard wood. 

Water Shellac. — Shellac dissolved with water 
and an alkali dries much slower than alcohol shellac. 
But when dry it sandpapers and rubs out just as well 
as the other, nor will it raise the grain of the wood 
as badly as the alcohol shellac does. It makes a very 
satisfactory coating under the varnish coats. As it 
does not set so quickly it can be brushed out smoother 
and will require less rubbing than alcohol shellac. 

Mixed with a strong solution of white or brown 
glue, according to kind of work that is in hand, equal 
parts of glue and shellac dissolved in alkali make a 
good filler for cheap work ; it will bear out the varnish 
nicely and give a clean job with one coat of the filler 
and one coat of cheap varnish. 

To make water shellac take one pound of pulverized 
orange shellac and one-half pound of powdered borax, 
and a non-metal basin containing a gallon of soft 
water; in the water place the ingredients and set the 
vessel on a stove to boil until gum and borax are dis- 
solved. There will be some residue from the shellac, 
hence it must be strained through cheese-cloth; boil 
down to a proper consistency. Some think the addition 
of a little alcohol improves this shellac varnish, but 
this is not certain ; yet the addition of about eight 
ounces of alcohol to the gallon of water shellac may 
be desirable as giving the liquid the odor of alcohol 
shellac. Some, indeed, mix together equal parts of the 
shellac and alcohol, but this increases the cost. Possi- 
bly the addition of more or less alcohol may improve 
the quality of water shellac. 

Clear Alcoholic Solution of Shellac. — ^To 
make this form of shellac pour six parts of strong 
grain alcohol over one part of bleached gum shellac, 
and shake it occasionally until the lac is dissolved, 



SHELLAC VARNISH 215 

which will require about ten to twelve hours. Then 
add one part of powdered chalk and heat the mass 
over a water bath; let it then stand until it becomes 
clear, then pour off the clear portion and strain the 
sediment through filter paper, assisting the operation 
with a little alcohol. 

White Gum Shellac Specifications. — The spec- 
ifications issued by the Navy Department, 191 2, are 
as follows : 

1. White shellac must be pure, recently bleached 
white shellac in hank form and free from adulterants 
and other foreign matter. It must not contain more 
than 4 per cent, of shellac wax and not more than 25 
per cent, of moisture, and when treated with hot ethyl 
alcohol, 94 per cent, by volume, there must not remain 
more than ij^ per cent, of insoluble matter. 

2. In case the percentage of moisture present ex- 
ceeds 25 per cent, the delivery shall be accepted for 
an amount as many per cent, less than the actual 
amount delivered as the percentage of moisture exceeds 
25 per cent. 

3. To be delivered in barrels, which shall be marked 
with the name of manufacturer and gross and net 
weights. 

Special Quick Drying Shellac. — The wood fin- 
isher sometimes finds himself in need of a quick drying 
varnish which will rub in a few hours and match the 
usual slower drying varnish. Take two pounds of 
bone-dry bleached shellac gum and dissolve it in one 
gallon of wood alcohol or denatured spirits, the latter 
to be preferred. When dissolved let it stand twenty- 
four hours, by which time there will be a clear liquid 
on top and some sediment on the bottom. Pour off 
the top liquid. This gives a varnish that is pale 
enough for the finest work; it will dry quickly and 
rub nicely. It is intended for "touching up," or for 



216 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

edges that have been marred or rubbed through. But 
if you wish to touch up anything that has been coated 
with an oil or turpentine varnish and you wish to 
rub it, the whole surface should be coated, as the two 
varnishes are so different that they would not give 
the same gloss when finished. While it is not intended 
for large surfaces over another varnish, it is fine for 
any size surface that has not been previously coated 
with another varnish. It flows out more freely and 
dries more rapidly when used alone than it does other- 
wise. It should be applied freely and with as little 
brushing as possible, as it sets quickly. Until one 
learns from experience how to apply it to a large sur- 
face there will be more or less trouble in using this 
varnish. It rubs in either water or oil, but better in oil. 

Applying Shellac in Damp Weather. — The fin- 
isher must be careful in applying shellac varnish in 
damp weather, especially on mahogany and walnut. 
Under the conditions named there is danger of the 
finish on these woods being greenish in cast. If you 
are using a white shellac in damp weather and it turns 
to a pale film on the wood before it becomes dry, stop 
work at once. If you are using orange shellac which 
shows a slightly greenish hue just before it sets, it indi- 
cates moisture in the air. Stop using it until the shop 
is right. There is no trouble when the shop is prop- 
erly heated, with no windows open to admit the damp 
air. The heavier the shellac the greater the trouble 
from dampness, showing most at the edges and at the 
points of the laps. 

Chinese Glue. — Dissolv'e gum shellac in ten times 
its weight of ammonia. The ammonia must be strong. 
There is on the market a preparation that is likely only 
Chinese glue, so called. It is advertised to be better 
than alcohol shellac, and that it does not raise the grain 
of the wood, sets slowly, dries hard quickly, flows well 



SHELLAC VARNISH 217 

and does not show brush marks, dries flat or without 
gloss, requires no sandpapering, and so on. Undoubt- 
edly it has merit and will be found useful for many 
purposes. It can be thinned with benzine, but is not 
useful for floors nor for knot killing. 

Shellac Varnish Notes 

Venice turpentine and balsam of fir act in shellac 
varnish as tougheners and hardeners. 

A little gum camphor added to shellac varnish will 
make it more pliable and easier to spread. 

Castor oil retards the setting and imparts flexibility. 
Oil of lavender prevents frilling or chill. Boric acid 
enables a lacquer to adhere to metals. 

Celluloid is used in the place of a resin, the trans- 
parent chip, sheet, or dust being used for the purpose. 
It is soluble in acetone, and after solution may be 
diluted with amyl acetate, benzol, etc. 

Excess of moisture in shellac may be removed by 
placing strips of gelatin in it, these absorbing the 
water; they can then be removed, dried, and used 
again. 

Old shellac becomes dull and spongy, due to the 
absorption of moisture and by the evaporation of the 
alcohol. Add a little turpentine to it. 

To clean shellac brushes wash out with alcohol ; then 
with soap and water. Alcohol will remove shellac 
from any surface. So will alkali. 

When making up shellac varnish remember that it 
requires less white shellac to the gallon of alcohol 
than it does of the orange. For instance, where three 
and one-half pounds of orange shellac is used for 
making one gallon of orange shellac, use but three and 
one-quarter pounds of white. 

To color shellac varnish black use lampblack; for 



218 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

red use Chinese vermilion ; for blue use Prussian blue. 
The colors should be dry and finely ground. To mix, 
add the color to a little of the varnish and work it to 
a smooth paste; then add varnish, and alcohol also if 
necessary, in proper quantity to make the mixture 
spread well. 

To pulverize brown shellac place it in a strong bag 
and beat it with a mallet. Now and then sift out the 
powder and continue the pounding until all has been 
pulverized. 

By adding about one-half ounce of oxalic acid to the 
quart of orange shellac varnish its color is brightened 
and most of its impurities are removed. After adding 
the acid stir the varnish and then let it settle over 
night ; then pour off the clear solution and throw away 
the dregs. 

When the shellac shows a tendency to work short 
and show frills on the work it may be improved by 
the addition of a few drops of lavender or almond oil. 

A French cabinet maker gave this formula for mak- 
ing a good shellac varnish for furniture or floor work. 
Five pounds of pale orange shellac, one ounce of gum 
mastic, and five or six pints of alcohol; dissolve cold 
in order to prevent evaporation, stirring constantly. 

If we mix rosin with pure orange shellac in the pro- 
portion of one-fourth of the latter to three-fourths of 
the former we get a varnish that will dry in the same 
time as a pure shellac varnish, while its adhesive power 
will be equal if not superior to the pure alcohol shellac 
varnish. But the pure shellac varnish will give a 
harder coating than the one containing rosin. 

By mixing two-thirds shellac with one-third rosin 
we get a slower drying varnish and one with a softer 
coating. Still, such a mixture will give very fair re- 
sults, as it may be rubbed after about four hours, the 
second coating giving a high gloss finish. 



SHELLAC VARNISH 219 

Camphor may be added to any alcohol varnish, but 
never more than one ounce to the gallon. To celluloid 
varnish it may be added to the extent of 25 per cent, 
of the guncotton. 

Apply shellac varnish, made with alcohol, with a 
brush set in glue, alcohol not injuring such a brush. 

Two coats of thin shellac are better than one heavy 
coat. Steel wool is better for smoothing between coats 
than sandpaper. Make no misses when applying shel- 
lac, and never touch-up any missed part. Keep surface 
smooth as you apply varnish. 

Thin up alcohol shellac with alcohol, any kind that 
does not contain any petroleum product. Some add a 
little turpentine. 

Filter white shellac through several folds of cheese- 
cloth. Keep in a tightly stoppered vessel. 

Ten per cent, of Venice turpentine to the shellac by 
weight will make it work easier under the brush. 

Shellac varnish containing rosin had better be used as 
soon as possible as the lac will precipitate to the bottom, 
like a mass of rubber, and it cannot be dissolved again. 

Some shellac is adulterated with Manila gum, and 
such shellac is not as hard and elastic as the pure 
article; it should contain some Venice turpentine, just 
a little, to overcome this fault. 

It is said that about sixty per cent, of all the shellac 
we use in this country is T N, or "Truly Native." It 
represents a very dark lac, and selling at a very low 
price, comparatively. Where color is no object it is a 
very good shellac. 

A medium grade of orange shellac is made paler by 
the use of orpiment. High grades of orange shellac 
are made from the best stick lac, and is gathered late 
in the fall from the Palas tree. It is a very clean grade 
of shellac and has little or no orplment in it ; it is used 
mostly by makers of high-grade furniture, for backs of 



220 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

mirrors, pattern work, and for plastic or composition 
materials. 

Garnet lac is the lac with the dye or coloring left 
in it; used mostly by hat makers and makers of shoe 
blacking; it is made pure or with ten per cent, added 
rosin. Once this lac was valued for its dye, the lac 
being thrown away. Button lac is the same as orange 
shellac, only it contains more natural wax. Kal is an 
inferior garnet or button lac, being made from the 
refuse from the other lacs. It contains also a large per- 
centage of rosin. Tongue lac differs in form only from 
button lac. Seed lac is the same as stick lac except 
that it is ground and washed, the lac dye being entirely 
or partly removed. Stick lac is the crude lac as it 
comes from the trees. 

On a hot, humid day shellac may become like sour 
cream in appearance, due to its absorption of water. 
In the best furniture finishing rooms shellacked ar- 
ticles are placed in a hot drying room as soon as they 
are done, this even in hot weather. 

To test shellac for purity mix some with ether. 
Shellac is insoluble in ether, rosin is soluble, hence 
there will be partial solution. 

Shellac is the hardest known resin. Were it pos- 
sible to dissolve it in turpentine or linseed oil it would 
make the most durable of varnishes for exterior work- 
in contact with atmospheric conditions. As it can 
be dissolved only in alcohol and alkali it is useful 
only indoors. 

Shellac Floor Finish. — A painter with forty 
years' experience declares that as a floor finish "shellac 
is all right." That he would not give a cent for floor 
varnish for durability; he thinks shellac wears ever so 
much better. That at least has been his experience, 
he adds. 

Objects to Shellac. — An experienced wood fin- 



SHELLAC VARNISH 221 



Isher says that high-class work should not be si 
lacked, but be worked up from the filler with oil var- 
nish. His reasoning is that shellac is an alcoholic 
finish and does not connect up with either the oily 
undercoatings or with the oil varnish used over it ; 
the least rough usage will cause the varnish to chip 
off. He concludes that shellac should be used only 
on cheap work, where speed is the object. 

Why Shellac Should Be Used. — The most dura- 
ble finish by the use of a medium coat of shellac on the 
wood, says an expert finisher, has been proved many 
times. There should not be two coats, as some prac- 
tice it, because that makes a very brittle body under 
the oil varnish. There is no saving in dispensing with 
shellac and putting oil varnish on the bare wood or 
filler. Oil varnish does not sandpaper well, and when 
used for the priming coat the next coat, oil varnish, 
does not flow out as smoothly as when put on a sur- 
face prepared with shellac. 

Finishing Refrigerators. — A refrigerator plant 
using the sprayer say they formerly used shellac on 
the first coat, but found that a cheap grade of varnish, 
called a surfacer, gave them better results. They now 
apply three coats of varnish, including the surfacer. 
The finisher explains that shellac dried too rapidly, 
but that the air spray shoots the varnish surfacer 
right into the wood, and not being such a quick drier 
it penetrates better than shellac. Most of these re- 
frigerators are made of birch, and three coats of var- 
nish make a handsome finish. 

Spraying Shellac Varnish. — A contributor to a 
trade paper catering to the wood-working trade gives 
his reasons for not using the air spray machine for 
applying shellac varnish. Among other interesting 
things his article contained was this : "I do not believe 
shellac, genuine or artificial, should ever be sprayed, as 



222 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

shellac varnish is a liquid that will not stand a draft 
of air and has no flowing quality, but is intended to 
lie as it is applied. Very few men, even though good 
brush hands, can do a hrst-class job of shellacking; 
therefore, applying a coat with an air sprayer you are 
working against the nature of the material, leaving it 
as the air has placed it, in a mottled condition and 
making a foundation that is far from what it should 
be. Spraying shellac is, I think, responsible for much 
of the pinholes that we hear so much about now. In 
sanding it takes more paper and more time than is 
required by a hand coating, not giving as good a sur- 
face nor body.'* 

Says another finisher : "In my opinion the spraying 
machine is a very necessary article; 1 do not believe 
that we shall ever get as good a job with it as with 
handwork, but the difference in the quantity of pro- 
duction makes it far more desirable than the old-time 
liandwork. Nor do I believe that it will do all that 
was done by hand, or as good in every case." 

Both brush and sprayer should be used together. 
The sprayer will not drive the filler into the pores 
of the wood far enough to make a first-class job; but 
if the sprayer is followed closely by the brush a satis- 
factory job can be secured. Let one man do the spray- 
ing, followed by another man with the brush. This 
is the conclusion arrived at by an expert finisher. 
This, of course, applies only to the open-pored woods, 
as the close-grain woods do not have to be paste-filled. 

For birch or similar woods it is not necessary to 
brush the filler, the cleaning-off process will insure 
enough filler in what grain there is open to receive it. 
Only birch that has been stained with water stain will 
need filling. When this wood is to be finished in its 
natural color, or is stained with an oil stain, filling is 
not necessary, for the surface is sufficient to fill the 



SHELLAC VARNISH 223 

pores. But water stain opens and enlarges the pores, 
and filling is needed to fill the pores and to avoid pin- 
holing. For birch or other woods that have been 
water stained the filler should contain a larger quan- 
tity of oil than is required for wood that has not 
been so treated, otherwise the filler will give the work 
a clouded appearance. But if a very thin coat of shel- 
lac is applied before filling, additional oil will not be 
necessary, because the shellac will prevent the too rapid 
absorption of oil from the filler. 

"Experienced Finisher" writes as follows : *'My 
experience has taught me that a smoother coat of shel- 
lac can be applied with the sprayer than with the 
brush. The shellac must not be used over two and 
one-half pounds to the gallon. The mottled appear- 
ance on sprayed shellac surfaces is caused by a too 
heavy-bodied shellac. The evaporation of shellac ap- 
plied by the sprayer is greater than when the brush 
is used, hence the shellac must be much thinner. Ap- 
plication of shellac at a low air pressure involves less 
evaporation and gives a surface requiring less sand- 
papering. And better results are obtained by working 
close to the surface. A number of plants are elim- 
inating 30 to 50 per cent, of shellac sandpapering by 
spraying it under the conditions I have named." 

Applying Filler with Sprayer. — The sprayer 
does not and cannot work the filler to the bottom of the 
pores. It is a quick and easy way to apply the filler, 
but that is all. Unless the pores are full the surfacer 
or varnish coat will sink in more or less, and hence 
more varnish is required and more time consumed in 
the finishing. It is no advantage to apply a uniform 
coat of filler nor a heavy coat if enough has not been 
gotten into the wood. 



HOW TO USE THE AIR-SPRAY MACHINE 

Whatever may be said against this machine, it is 
a fixed fact in furniture manufacturing, in the finish- 
ing room, and must be accepted as such. One writer 
declares that "practically every piece of furniture pro- 
duced (in recent years) has had the greater number, 
if not all, of its coats applied by the spray method." 
We cannot do better, in this article, than to quote from 
a writer in Veneers, in its issue of September, 1920. 

"In order to get the best results with this new 
method, which so quickly adapted itself to the varied 
lines of finishing, it is essential to know its use, be 
adept in its use, know the materials to be applied, and 
know when they are properly applied. It will not take 
as long for a finisher to become proficient in the use 
of the spray as it did for him to become expert in the 
use of the brush, but let me impress on those taking 
to the spray method that it is important to know its 
advantages and its limitations. 

"To get the best results by the old method it was 
necessary to maintain a high degree of cleanliness, 
and this is just as essential in this modern method of 
finishing. Brushes always had to be kept in first-class 
condition, and just so with the spray machine. If con- 
dition and quality of brushes were a pride to the 
brush hand, the condition and quality of the spray 
machine should be the pride of the spray operator 
also. To get the best results out of any piece of ma- 
chinery it must be clean, well-kept and not abused. 
The spray machine must be kept well oiled and always 
in perfect working condition. This, it might be 

224 



HOW TO USE THE AIR-SPRAY MACHINE 225 

thought, is hard to do and requires a lot of time. On 
the contrary, if five minutes are taken at the end of 
the day to clean it and oil it, the operator will be more 
than repaid by its smooth working during the operating 
hours. 

"Surfaces to be sprayed should be cleaned before 
applying finish. Usually this is handled by blowing 
dust and dirt off the surface with an air duster, while 
article is in booth, in position to be sprayed. The ex- 
haust fans in booth draw out this dust, eliminating 
its spreading in finishing room for work requiring 
high-grade finish. The finishing room, as when brush- 
ing, must be as nearly dustproof as it is possible to 
make it. It should also be roomy, light and well ven- 
tilated. 

"Beginning at the air-compressing plant, the 'don'ts* 
and 'precautions' to be taken are as follows : Water 
and oil in air line are the source of considerable trou- 
ble; water affects nearly all varnishes, and spotted 
effects on the surface result. Oil will make the sur- 
face look mottled. If the air receiver is drained once 
or twice daily, or oftener in certain localities where the 
humidity is high, and a condensing arrangement is in- 
serted in air line in proximity to where sprayer is used, 
water trouble can be practically eliminated. Oil is 
removed by filtering air, and here it is essential to re- 
member that the substance used in filter should be 
changed occasionally. Once this substance becomes 
oil-soaked the pressure will force oil through, only a 
small amount being required to spoil a day's work. 

"Temperature is an important factor to watch. 
Temperature of work, of room and of material should 
be the same for best results. In warm weather there 
is practically no trouble from defects due to tempera- 
ture, but once cold weather sets in these defects loom 
up in full force. Spraying varnish at 40 degs. on a 



226 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

surface 50 degs., with temperature in room 60 or 70 
degs., will give one the finest kind of an example. The 
varnish, being cold, is in a congealed state, and of 
course is not broken up as fine as it should be. And 
cold varnish applied on a chilled surface gives work 
the appearance of a sand-strewn coating. This is 
the natural result of the material not being applied 
heavy enough and the heat in room not being sufficient 
to cause proper flowing out. 

"Where varnishes, or materials containing varnish 
as a vehicle, are used a heater for material is recom- 
mended. This allows one to apply vaniishes heavier 
and to save time, labor and material. The saving of 
material is effected by eliminating one or more coats. 
Improved results are insured through better flowing 
out of material. 

"The sprayer itself is a mechanical device, and as 
such requires lubrication, care and cleanliness. Many 
minor faults found in use of spraying equipment could 
be entirely eliminated by the use of common sense by 
the operator. On any machine, when a part is re- 
moved, great care is taken to replace it exactly as it 
was. Just so with the spray machine. If certain 
parts had been screwed up tight they should be re- 
placed the same way. Occasionally an operator has 
difficulty with the machine spitting or producing a 
heavy spray on one side. This is due entirely to tinker- 
ing with the equipment and not using proper precau- 
tion to put back parts exactly as they were originally. 
My experience has been that both time and money 
are saved by sending the machine to the factory for 
repairs when something radically wrong turns up. 
It is my further experience that to avoid any hold-up 
in production it is advisable always to keep one or 
two sprayers in reserve for just such an emergency. 

"Pressures at which to apply various materials must 



HOW TO USE THE AIR-SPRAY MACHINE 221 

be left largely to the discretion of the operator, he 
knowing the amount of work, quality of finish de- 
manded of him, and the grade of material he is apply- 
ing. Stains usually are applied at pressures ranging 
from 30 to 40 lbs. ; shellacs at 30 to 45 lbs. pressure ; 
varnishes at 50 to 80 lbs. pressure ; this range of pres- 
sure allows for various grades of material. Proper 
working distance from work is from 6 to 8 in., and 
in some cases slightly more. Best results are always 
obtained by staying as close to the work as consistent 
with good spraying practice, using the least amount of 
air pressure required to break up the material thor- 
oughly. By following these suggestions a worth-while 
saving of material will surely be effected. Further 
experience has taught me that: (a) Fillers should be 
applied at as low an air pressure as is possible; should 
be mixed about 10 lbs. per gallon for open-grained 
wood and about 8 lbs. for close-grained; they require 
agitation and should be handled through pressure feed 
containers, (b) Stains used while hot are better, the 
penetration being greater; if work has been glue-sized 
before being belt-sanded, stains should not be used 
hot, but merely warm ; the electric heater can be used 
to advantage in the latter case ; gravity-feed containers 
work out better in the handling of stains. 

"Too much importance cannot be attached to the 
quality of fillers used and their application. About 
nine out of every ten cases of trouble can be traced 
to this first step of the finishing operation. This is 
the base of pinhole trouble, which is found more or 
less in built-up wood. Trouble of this nature can be 
eliminated if care is taken to see that there is enough 
binder in the material. Binder holds the filler in the 
pores of the wood, and if enough has been incorpo- 
rated the filler will not pull out in the rubbing process. 
Jhis defect can be detected, before any shellac or var- 



228 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

nish is applied, by using a magnifying lens and exam- 
ining the filled surface. 

"Shellac for spraying should be cut not more than 
2^ lbs. to I gal. of alcohol. While some shellac sub- 
stitutes should be reduced 50 per cent, and others more. 
A substitute that is too heavy will leave a pitted sur- 
face, while one too light will bubble in the grain of 
the wood, the final result being clear to all of us; 30 
to 45 lbs. is the range of pressure at which shellac 
should be applied. Gravity-feed containers are best 
adapted for handling shellac. 

"Best results in spraying varnish call for the use 
of the electric heater. Heating material gives better 
flowing qualities and eliminates reducing. The heated 
coat, liberally applied, many times saves going over 
the surface more than once. Never spray so as to 
cross the coats. Pressure-feed containers are more 
suitable for the handling of varnish, allowing the oper- 
ator to use less air to break it up ; six to eight pounds 
pressure on material is all that is required to force it 
to the nozzle of the sprayer. Too much pressure on 
material will cause sprayer to sprinkle or split, the 
reason being that more material is flowing from the 
nozzle than the air is able to atomize properly. 

"Just as is the case in every factory department, 
there are times when little troubles arise in the finish- 
ing room equipped with the spraying machine. How- 
ever, these seldom involve serious difficulties. There 
is always some good cause for all happenings, and the 
easiest and quickest way out is to calmly locate the 
cause and apply the remedy that practice and good 
judgment usually suggest. If the problem encoun- 
tered appears to be insoluble put discouragement to 
one side and call up the maker of the machine for 
help. He will help you out, no doubt. 

"Concluding, let me emphasize these points : Tern- 



HOW TO USE THE AIR-SPRAY MACHINE 229 

perature of workroom, job and material; air pressure; 
purity of air; quality of materials applied; cleanliness 
of work and room; condition of sprayer and its care." 

The following additional information is from a fin- 
isher who has had considerable experience in operating 
a sprayer. He says : 

"After making sure that our machine is in perfect 
condition, by brushing on a coat of shellac we have 
started to build a smooth foundation for the varnish 
coats, and should get a satisfactory job; if we don't 
there is something wrong with our method of apply- 
ing the varnish. Some heat the air and some the var- 
nish, but I believe both should be heated to the same 
temperature. Most of the heaters, I believe, do not 
do this. I think a heater should be built that allows 
the air and varnish to travel through the same dis- 
tance, coming in contact with the same heating coils, 
so they will have the same temperature when they 
reach the gun. 

"Some operators stand too far away from the article 
being sprayed. The distance where the best results 
are obtained should be observed and the operator 
should maintain this distance as nearly as possible. 
Just because the gun is throwing out the material is 
no sign of good results, for if a thermometer is held 
at the end of the gun it may show a temperature of 80 
or 90 deg., and when held at from 36 to 40 in. away 
it may show lower than the room temperature. Var- 
nish passing through the air in the cabinet cools faster 
than it can be heated, for it is not only being blown 
with air, but is passing through a circulation of air 
caused by the fan in the booth, 

'*As an instance of what excess air will do, I visited 
a plant making desk tops approximately 6 ft. wide. 
The operator started his varnish from the opposite 
side, working towards himself. Each time he crossed 



230 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

the top he blew the air over the part varnished, caus- 
ing it to set so it could not flow out. By reversing 
and starting on the edge nearest him the air from the 
gun would not have come in contact with the varnish 
already applied and it would have flowed out in a satis- 
factory manner. We have all been taught never to 
apply varnish in a draft, yet this man expected to get 
good results by making a draft over his work. 

"Very good results are obtained by placing the var- 
nish drum on pipes arranged to keep it at an even tem- 
perature. Such a rack can be built where any large 
amount of varnish is used, and may be made to heat 
two or more drums. I would recommend keeping 
them a little warmer than the room temperature. If 
the spraying machine is not working all right it is only 
necessary to give the methods employed a little thought 
to find the cause of the trouble, and I hope the sugges- 
tions I have made will help to locate any difliculties." 



INFORMATION—GENERAL AND SPECIAL 

Sap and Seasoning. — In no other wood does it re- 
quire so long a time for the sap to die as in rosewood ; 
in other words, for the albumen to coagulate. If the 
wood finisher ever wonders, as he often does, why- 
rosewood acts so badly under his finishes he will find 
the source of his trouble in the slow drying of the sap. 
This sap acts upon the varnish, and this is especially 
annoying to piano finishers who use rosewood largely 
in their work. An expert finisher offers the suggestion 
that the wood be treated with a weak solution of 
phosphoric acid, then with alcohol. But he had never 
tried this, it being merely his theory, based upon the 
idea that the acid would act upon the albumen, coagu- 
lating it upon the surface of the wood immediately, 
while the alcohol w^ould reduce it to an insoluble 
state. 

Oak IS another wood that acts badly sometimes. 
This action is due to its tannin content. When oak 
is cut in the growing season it contains more albumen 
than when cut in the fall, after growth has ceased 
for the year. This explains the difference of conduct 
of oaks when being stained and finished, some doing 
well while others act badly. The oak is full of albu- 
men, which in the circulation of the sap deposits a 
large amount of soft matter on the lining of the wood 
cells. If this matter contains any tannin it will act 
upon the filler; it acts especially upon a starch filler, 
and many gums, used in fillers, are affected in the same 
way, becoming quite soft. 

Then there is a difference even in the same species 

231 



j.L^ 'rm-: i';.\i'i-:i>: r wood I'INIsiii-m^ 

of woods, say, between French and American burl 
walnut, or Italian and Circassian walnut, which is well 
known to wood liinsiicrs. There is a diricrcjice in the 
vascular formation of the woods, no doul)!. and this 
must account for (lie varyin<;- results with identical 
treatments. The woods named re([uire very dilTerent 
treatments at the hands of the finishers in order that 
satisfactory results may he obtained. And the only 
way to ,i^et this satisfactory work is by knowing just 
what will suit each kind, and to know one needs to 
study and experiment. 

The finisher should have a microscope for exam- 
inini;' the wockI structure, for this will j;ive him a better 
kuo\vledi;e of the structural character of wood than 
can be obtained by the unaided eye. And the same 
with a filled surface of wood; when the finisher looks 
over his filled work and it appears to show a filled 
and solid surface it will be a surprise to him, in many 
cases at least, to take a look at it throut;h a micro- 
scope, even one of small power. Take a ])iece of oak 
and fill it. Likely some parts of it will be soft and 
close, while other parts, and perhaps the Uiri^er ])art 
of it, may be hard and very o])en-i;raine(l. Now the 
same filler will not do equally well here ; or the same 
rubbing off, for we may rub filler out of the large pores 
and sufficiently till the smaller pores. The filler for 
the large pores nnist be rather stitfish, whereas for the 
closer-pored wood it nuist be rather licpiid. Now with 
the microscope we can see exactly how the work is, 
whether right or not. We have seen furniture where 
the varnish seemed to have sunk in. while other parts 
stood out i)lum]) and full. W^e have just told how 
this may c(^me to ]xiss. 

Staining the Ends of Boarus. — The ends of the 
b(\ards take up stain like a sponge, and this gives the 
finisher not a little trouble. 'Jlie erids show up nuich 



INFORMATION— GENI'.KAL AND SPECIAL 233 

darker than the rest of the work. One way to over- 
come this trouble is by filh'ng- the ends full of paste 
filler, but you will need to be careful not to get too 
solid a filling there, for that would result in it show- 
ing its col(jr, hiding the wood, and giving an opaque 
effect. Another way is to wax the ends, either by j)lac- 
ing wax on them and then heating it in with warm 
iron, or by ap])lying the usual wax finish, such as 
comes prepared for floor waxing. The smoother the 
sawed ends are the easier it is for the fmisher to do a 
good job. 

Shop Economies. — Instead of destroying the life 
of a liller by excessive thinning, done to hasten the 
work, use it as heavy as possible and then rul) it in 
th(jroughly. The filler is about the cheapest article 
used by the finisher, but the man who uses it should 
be competent; yet an inexpert man may do it. and do it 
well, though it cannot be said that boys, whose labor 
is still cheaper, will be likely to do it as it should be 
done. The idea is to save by having the lower priced 
man do the filling. It is said that at least twenty-five 
per cent, can be .saved in this way. The labor cost is 
computed to be eighty per cent. r)f the entire cost of 
finishing. 

Take care of the tools, brushes and stock of all 
kinds. Keep varnish and filler covered, free from 
dust and dirt; have volatile liquirls well stopj)ered to 
prevent waste by cvaj)oration. Much waste occurs 
with tow, used for rubbing out the filler; after having 
used it until full do not throw it away, but let it be- 
come dry, then shake anrl pull it loose, and it will be 
as good as ever. Sandpaper is wasted by being worn 
smooth and then thrown away. Save it for smoothing 
certain fme work or small moldings, etc. Keep the 
varnish brushes clean and in a keeper, not allowing 
them to become lousy (full of dry sand-like specks). 



234 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

Staining Wood before Working Up. — The idea 
of stainiii"^ wood before the woodworker takes it in 
hand, so that all the wood finisher will have to do will 
be to varnish it, has engaged the attention of the in- 
ventive for some years, and certainly its consummation 
would bring joy to the hearts of wood finishers, whose 
troubles with stains and staining are about the worst 
they have to endure. One man suggests staining the 
wood while it is yet on the hoof, as it were, or in the 
tree. This idea has been experimented upon for many 
years, and from time to time there have been announce- 
ments of remarkable results obtained by this process. 
It has been claimed, though of course never proved, 
that almost any color scheme may be developed in this 
way; in fact, it w^ould seem that even the barber pole 
might be thus made, only needing to be varnished after 
the wood worker had shaped it. That idea is brilliant. 

Another idea along the same line consists in inject- 
ing coloring matter into blocks and logs. Some won- 
derful results have been obtained from this process, 
for it is of course entirely practicable. For instance, 
the color design of the stars-and-stripes and other na- 
tional Hags have been forced into timber so that when 
cut up into blocks the color design makes its appear- 
ance on the finished surface of the block. This is a 
German invention, said to have been in use for some 
time, but it does not appear to have been a commercial 
success. 

In our country we have steamed cabinet wood un- 
der pressure to harmonize the color and deepen it a 
little, as well as to hasten the process of seasoning. 
This is classed as a method of seasoning, but it does 
have some bearing on the matter of coloring or stain- 
ing wood before using. There are some who use prac- 
tically the same process and, by injecting certain chem- 
icals, bring out certain stains or colors in the wood. 



INFORMATION— GENERAL AND SPECIAL 235 

Some call this a vulcanizing process, and it is espe- 
cially adapted to oak, mahogany, gum and cherry; it 
should also be useful in preparing veneer for use, as 
it should be practicable to give them all a uniform 
color, and thus not only to complete the staining bcf(jre 
using the veneer, but make it through and through 
the wood, so that there will be no pcjssibility of tin- 
stained surface working off. 

Imitating Old Mahogany. — This may be done 
with a weak solution of bichromate of potash, in water, 
or by fuming. Weak lime water antiques it, making- 
it rather red. The antique effect may be had by 
means of a mixture of two parts of turpentine and 
one part raw oil, well rubbed into the wood, afterwards 
wiping it off dry. Then apply a coat of water solu- 
tion of bichromate of potash. When that is dry fill 
the wood with mahogany paste filler; finish as desired, 
shellac or oil varnish. 

Maiioganizing Other Woods. — A French method 
of mahoganizing other woods consists in giving the 
wood a coat of diluted nitric acid, which is to be well 
rubbed into the wood. Then stain with a mixture of 
one and one-half ounces of dragon's blood dissolved in 
one pint of alcohol, which must then be filtered; then 
add one-third its weight of carbonate of soda. Apply 
this mixture with a brush, repeating this at intervals 
until the surface has the appearance of polished ma- 
hogany. In case the luster should fail it may be re- 
stored by rubbing with cold raw linseed oil. 

Finishing Fireproofed Wood. — Woodwork is 
made fireproof by forcing certain chemicals or salts 
into their pores by pressure. While these salts remain 
dry there is no trouble, but should any moisture get 
to them the finish of the wood is sure to be injured. 
The salts act especially upon woods containing tannin, 
darkening and marring the beauty of the wood. In 



236 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

some cases only paint can be used upon such treated 
wood. The salts might be neutralized in some way, 
but there does not seem to be any way. The best fin- 
ish, other than oil paint, is hard gum copal varnish. 

Staining and Finishing House Trim. — For the 
soft woods the oil and turpentine stains do well, par- 
ticularly on the bare wood. For staining pine and 
spruce with light or dark oak, cherry or mahogany 
stains, use plenty of oil and driers. There are many 
soft places in pine that show up much darker than in 
the rest of the surface, because of the greater quantity 
of stain absorbed by its sinking in. By using oil rather 
than turpentine the stain does not sink in so bad, and 
the whole surface will have a more uniform color. 
Then it gives a better foundation if it is to have only 
one coat of varnish. Sometimes there will be as many 
as three kinds of soft wood in one room, such as pine, 
bass and spruce. It requires skill to get uniformity 
of color when staining such work. About three pots 
of different stains will be required. 

Where wood is not strictly first class many parts will 
be soft and punky, and in such case give it a coat of 
oil and turpentine, half and half. And a stain con- 
taining rather less oil than turpentine will do best. 
After the oil coat is dry, and if the work has been 
wiped carefully, a good result can be had. 

Whereas basswood or whitewood can be stained ma- 
hogany, cherry or rosewood successfully, the pine of 
to-day can rarely be stained to imitate another wood. 

Yellow pine can be finished very nicely in oak and 
brown colors, as also green weathered effects. But 
this wood is not so well adapted for the red colors, 
mahogany and cherry. Nor does the wood always take 
the stains alike, and it is necessary to have two pots of 
stain ; even then the color may not be uniform, although 
the effect will be pleasing. The stain requires much 



INFORMATION— GENERAL AND SPh.CIAL 237 

driers, and it should be wiped over; usually two coats 
of varnish will then give a good finish, dull or gloss. 
Trouble is sometimes had with doors which seemed 
perfectly clear and ready for staining, but which after 
the staining showed up cloudy and blotchy, probably 
due to rain, or water in some form, and only scraping 
will remove it. 

Violin Varnishing. — The ancient violin makers 
used a varnish made from fossil amber, and the var- 
nish was colored as follows: Golden yellow, golden 
amber, golden orange, light golden red, dark ruby red, 
deep blood red, reddish-amber, golden brown, reddish- 
brown, and very dark reddish-brown. The wood was 
not stained, but the varnish was. The wood was first 
sandpapered smooth and a coat of very pale varnish 
was applied, this being rubbed into the pores of the 
wood; after a week another coat of varnish was ap- 
plied. This second coat was rubbed down and pol- 
ished; then colored varnish was applied, from two to 
five coats, until the required depth of color was ob- 
tained. To do a real good job requires about three 
weeks, and a finer job will require longer time. The 
varnish dries slowly, hence produces a tough finish, 
one that is very durable. Where a cheaper job must 
be done a different course will be pursued; but a too 
rapid drying of the varnish will impair the tone of the 
instrument. 

Piano Finishing. — The process of piano finishing 
has changed to some extent in recent years, or since 
dipping came into vogue. But to get the finest finish 
the old methods still are necessary. It used to require 
about three months to finish a piano, including the 
gluing. The wood must be made perfectly level and 
smooth, like the best plate glass. The highest grade 
of materials is used. The wood may be mahogany, 
oak, walnut, or other; and it may be veneered or 



23S THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

stained black, but In all cases, excepting as to the stains, 
the treatment is the same. Vegetable stains are the 
only ones that will do= Two coats of stain are given. 
Then two coats of filler, with the usual rubbing ojfif, 
with forty-eight hours before sandpapering. The 
paste filler is always stained. After the rubbing off 
the surface is sandpapered smooth. Sometimes one 
coat of paste filler does; perhaps in most cases one 
filling will do; the finisher is the judge of this. Then 
the rubbing varnish is applied. This varnish must be 
the highest grade, not too heavy of body, and it should 
be applied in a room having a temperature of not less 
than 70 deg. Fahr. From five to seven coats of this 
varnish is given, with one week between each for dry- 
ing, each coat being rubbed down with fine sandpaper. 
The last coat of rubbing varnish is rubbed down with 
fine pulverized pumicestone and water, using a felt 
pad for the rubber. The pumicestone must be per- 
fectly free from grit, and it is usual to sift it through 
a fine hair-cloth sieve; the American pumicestone is 
too coarse and gritty. Wash off with plenty of clear 
water, washing out every particle of pumicestone, then 
wipe dry with clean, soft, wet chamois. Now the job 
is ready for the polishing varnish, which is flowed on 
freely and brushed out level; use a very soft hair 
brush. After the job has stood one week it is rubbed 
with powdered rottenstone and water, using the palm 
of the hand as a rubber, and continue until a desired 
polish appears. Then wash off with clean water, dried 
with the chamois, and rubbed with a few drops of 
sweet oil on the palm of the hand. The oil is then 
spirited off with clean muslin moistened with alcohol. 
Some use cornstarch in place of alcohol, which is rather 
risky to use on account of its action on the varnish 
when overdone. But cornstarch does not give as clean 
a surface as alcohol does, but is safer in the hands of 



INFORMATION— GENERAL AND SPECIAL 239 

the careless or inexpert. Clean with a cotton rag. 

A week is usually given for a coat of varnish to dry, 
but sometimes ten days are given, and even two weeks 
would not be too long. This because of the number 
of coats given, the under coats requiring extra time, 
owing to the fact that most of them are sealed against 
the air by the upper coats. Much trouble comes from 
not having the varnish coats sufficiently dried before 
the succeeding one is applied. In piano work, too, 
the varnish must be right or other troubles will come. 
For some kinds of work kauri gum varnish is the very 
best, but for piano finishing only Zanzibar gum var- 
nish should be used, as it is the hardest gum known. 
Even when carrying the same amount of oil as the 
kauri gum varnish it will give a much harder surface, 
and hence it polishes better. Moreover, a hard varnish 
is necessary, owing to the usage the piano case will 
get. For the best results the finisher must use a quick 
drying non-elastic varnish for all the coats but the 
finishing, which must be very elastic. 

Finishing Antique Oak Piano Case. — Apply the 
usual dark oak water stain ; next day, when dry, sand- 
paper smooth and fill with paste filler. Rub filler well 
into the wood, using a leather pad. Let it stand then 
until the twelfth day, then give it a coat of orange 
shellac; next day sandpaper it, then apply a coat of 
piano rubbing varnish. On the twenty-third day give 
it a coat of piano rubbing varnish. On the thirty- 
first day give it another coat of piano rubbing varnish. 
On the thirty-ninth day still another coat of piano 
rubbing varnish. On the forty-seventh day another 
coat of rubbing varnish. On the sixty-first day scour 
with pulverized pumicestone and water. On the sev- 
enty-fifth day flow on a coat of piano polishing var- 
nish. On the eighty-ninth day rub lightly with fine 
pumicestone and water. On the ninety-first day rub to 



240 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

a surface with pulverized rottenstone and water. On 
the next day dry-polish with the palm of the hand, 
using powdered rottenstone. On the next day oil-off 
and clear up with alcohol. 

Another Piano Finishing Process. — -While the 
case is in the woodworking shop sponge it off with 
clear cold water ; let it dry, then sandpaper it carefully. 
Next apply a paste filler, which rub well into the wood 
with the leather pad. Let the job stand three days, 
then sandpaper with No. o paper, then apply the 
primer. On the seventh day sandpaper lightly with 
No. ooo sandpaper until the surface is perfectly 
smooth. Then apply a coat of kauri piano rubbing 
varnish. On the twenty-first day sandpaper as before, 
and apply another coat of the rubbing varnish. On 
the thirtieth day rub with No. i powdered pumice- 
stone and water to a surface. On the thirty-fourth 
day apply a coat of elastic Zanzibar piano polishing 
varnish. On the forty-sixth day rub lightly with No. 
o pumicestone and water. On the fiftieth day fiow 
on a coat of Zanzibar polishing varnish. Sixtieth 
day, rub with powdered rottenstone and water. Sixty- 
fourth day, dry-hand polish with refined velvet lamp- 
black, and then wash off with clear cold water. 

Finishing a Rosewood Case. — With the exception 
of the stain the process given for finishing oak case 
may be used in the finishing of a rosewood case, 
whether light or dark rosewood. To do a dark rose- 
wood case apply a coat of alcohol red stain, then sand- 
paper smooth and fill as directed elsewhere for rose- 
wood. After the filling comes a coat of orange shel- 
lac, which is to be glazed over with asphaltum varnish. 
After this point you may proceed as directed for the 
dark oak case, beginning with the process indicated 
for the thirteenth day. 

Mechanical Varnishing. — Modern factories that 



INFORMATION— GENERAL AND SPECIAL 241 

are strictly up to date are using a mechanical varnish- 
ing machine, which is composed of a rack on which 
several parts of a frame are placed on end, side by 
side. Each rack holding the parts of six pianos, the 
frame is placed in the machine, which slowly immerses 
it in a vat of varnish, where it is allowed to remain 
for a brief period, when it is slowly drawn out. The 
drawing from the varnish vat is done so slowly that 
the motion is scarcely perceptible to the eye, and it is 
so done that the surplus varnish flows away without 
streaking, coming out uniformly smooth and level. 
The method saves time, which means money, and 
makes each part damp-proof, which is especially im- 
portant in the shipping and exporting of the goods. 
The varnish preserves the glued parts from the action 
of moisture. 

How TO Prevent Cracking of Varnish. — Some 
piano makers refuse to ship their instruments in cold 
weather. One firm wiiich makes a medium grade of 
pianos, but which are well finished, state that they use 
only air-dried lumber, making solid cases, and do not 
use shellac. They body-up with a quick varnish and 
polish on a slow varnish. During the two years that 
they have been doing this they have not had one in- 
stance of varnish cracking. To avoid cracking the 
undercoats must be quick drying, non-elastic, but with 
an elastic finishing coat. They give less time to the 
drying of the undercoats than to the finishing coat; 
this latter coat should have time enough to become 
quite hard, which is essential to good polishing. If, 
however, insufficient time is allowed for each coat to 
dry there will be varnish-checking. It might be sup= 
posed that one or two weeks Vv^ould suffice, yet to be 
positively dry within that time it would be necessary 
to oven-dry it— and one piano maker did try it, with 
ill success; the heat destroyed the glue. 



242 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

Trouble with Shellac Finish. — A piano finisher 
once wrote me that he was having trouble with his 
finishing. French poHshed surfaces, on which white 
shellac had been used, showed up milky or gray. He 
added : "We very often have this to occur shortly 
after the work has been rubbed, while again it will not 
show until several weeks after the rubbing. In nearly 
every case the work looked clear before the rubbing, 
and even after the rubbing, and we have tried many 
ways to overcome the trouble, but with very little 
success, if any.*' 

That trouble was probably due to water in the white 
or bleached shellac. There has for years been trouble 
where pianos have been finished with white shellac, and 
it is unavoidable where such varnish is used as a 
rubbed finish. For years piano makers have sought 
for a remedy, but without success. The evil mani- 
fests itself in an unsightly exudation, which was once 
supposed to come from the oil used in the polishing, 
but is now attributed to the wax which exists in shel- 
lac. This wax is found to run from six to seven per 
cent, by weight, and it can be removed. First let us 
explain how the wax affects the finish. It combines 
with the oil used in polishing, and with it forms a 
soft, greasy compound that prevents the polish from 
hardening properly. It also causes the finish to be 
very sensitive to changes of temperature, and to be sus- 
ceptible to injury from wear or use. This greasy 
matter exudes from the polish after a time, causing the 
trouble that the piano finisher complains of in his com- 
munication. It is a sort of efflorescence, which greatly 
impairs the beauty of the finish. Now, there is a 
process whereby the fatty matter may be separated 
from the shellac by agitating a strong solution of al- 
cohol with fresh stick-lac or seed-lac, or filtering on 



INFORMATION— GENERAL AND SPECIAL 243 

this lac. Thereby the readily soluble resin, as well 
as slight quantities of coloring matter contained in 
the fresh lac, are extracted from it, while the more 
slightly soluble vegetable wax is separated from the 
solution. By one or more treatments of the concen- 
trated solution of shellac with fresh seed shellac a 
clear alcoholic solution free from wax of the shellac 
resins is obtained, which is not practicable by simul- 
taneously dissolving the shellac and seed lac in a suffi- 
cient quantity of alcohol. 

Such a shellac resin solution freed from vegetable 
wax has not heretofore been employed as a furniture 
polish, neither would it be satisfactory for the pur- 
pose, for it is too "short" and lacks in pliancy, ren- 
dering it unsuitable for being readily and uniformly 
rubbed into the wood. So far it would seem to indi- 
cate that we are no nearer the end of the trouble than 
we were at the beginning. But the chemist tells us 
how the difficulty may be overcome. To the shellac 
solution separated from the vegetable wax a medium 
is added which fully takes place of the wax as re- 
gards pliancy and polishing qualities, without exhib- 
iting its undesirable after-effects. Such a medium has 
been found in the essential oils, especially in oil of 
rosemary. The formula for this new shellac is : 
Twenty parts shellac and four parts gum benzoin are 
dissolved in as little strong alcohol as possible, with 
the addition of one part oil of rosemary. This strong 
solution is then repeatedly filtered over fresh stick-lac 
until the vegetable wax in the solution is completely 
abstracted and the solution has become perfectly clear. 

Another authority describes another way in which 
this fatty wax may be removed. Add some 62 deg. 
benzine to the alcoholic solution of shellac, agitate it 
well, then allow it to settle; now draw off the strata 



244 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

of benzine in which the wax has dissolved, and so ob- 
tain the shellac solution clear and free from the ob- 
jectionable wax. 

Imitation of Woods by Printing. — Considerable 
work is done by the roller process of transfer, by 
which cheap woods are so treated that very clever 
imitations are made of the finer and costlier woods, all 
of which will be described under this head. 

The Roller. — The roller should be made from 
strong, light, well-seasoned wood. For doing small 
parts, like windowsash, for instance, make the roller 
a little greater in circumference than the length of the 
surface that is to be printed on. This roller may be 
the segment of a circle of wood, in the form of a 
rocker, or it may be made in this manner : The shaft, 
extending about four inches on either end of the roller, 
to use in rolling, contains about twelve one-half inch 
spokes, around which is to be bent a strip of quarter- 
inch gum wood to form the roller. Make the handles 
smooth. To make the large roller make a circular 
head of one-inch board, three-fourths to one and one- 
half inches larger than the roller. Cut the edges of 
the heads true, and fasten down close to the roller; 
secure same firmly with bolts made to hook over the 
spokes of the roller. Fasten the head down true, so 
that it will form a flange of equal depth all around 
the roller. Now turn the roller over and stop all 
holes with plaster of Paris; the best way to do this 
is to run the plaster all around the inside of the roller; 
for there must be no leaks. In the head of the roller, 
as it now stands upright, cut out three or four holes 
along the edge of the head, about one by two inches, 
to allow pouring in of the composition and escape 
of air. Now take a long and sm_ooth strip of zinc 
that will be sufficient to enclose the roller, rub it well 
with grease or oil, then place it around the roller, oiled 



INFORMATION— GENERAL AND SPECIAL 245 

side in. Be sure to get the zinc well greased or oiled, 
to keep any of the composition from adhering to it; 
apply oil or grease in plenty and rub it well into the 
metal, rub off the surplus with a rag, then rub off 
with the bare hand. A very large roller will require 
the zinc fastened with collar bands. Draw the zinc 
around the heads of the roller and pour in the compo- 
sition through a strainer. Let it stand twelve hours 
before removing the zinc. 

For a smaller roller make a light wooden frame of 
a required size, as a mold, set in plaster of Paris on 
a piece of zinc or glass. Into this mold pour the 
composition, and on top of the composition lay a 
piece of canvas. When cool attach to roller or rocker, 
fastening the edges and ends of the canvas with tacks. 

The Composition. — Take tw^elve ounces of raw 
linseed oil and heat to near the boiling point, then 
add one ounce of chloride of sulphur; in another vessel 
melt two pounds of the best white glue and add eight 
ounces of glycerine ; in dissolving the glue use as little 
water as will suffice. Now mix and stir all together. 

Another method : Melt twenty-seven parts of the 
best white glue and add to it twelve parts of the best 
commercial glycerine ; add also a small quantity of mo- 
lasses and raw linseed oil. For a roller weighing 
from ten to fifteen pounds use one-half pint of molasses 
and the same of oil. To test the composition for con- 
sistency cool a little of it, and if it proves too hard add 
a little more glycerine; if too soft add a little more 
glue. Keep the composition hot. It will not injure 
it to boil ; in fact, it is better for the boiling, as boiling 
expels surplus water, which should be removed. 

Using the Roller. — Prepare a sample board of 
the kind of wood you wish to imitate and print from, 
selecting as good a specimen as possible, with good 
markings. The board should be six inches wider and 



246 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

one foot longer than the circumference of the roller. 
Dress the wood carefully. Fasten thin strips all around 
the board and extending an inch above the board; 
bore a half -inch hole in one corner, for use when 
cleaning off the board. Now take a half -box of con' 
centrated lye and dissolve it in hot water. Pour it 
out on the board and let it remain about twenty min- 
utes, then run it off and wash the board with clear 
water until no trace of the lye remains. When the 
board is perfectly dry, smooth it up with fine sand- 
paper. Then try the board, apply the color to ascertain 
whether the grain is sufficiently eaten out for the 
printing. If not, then give it another bath of lye. 
The lye eats away all the softer parts of the wood, leav- 
ing only the harder parts, or the grain and heart, leav- 
ing the board like a zinc etching. 

The Scraper. — You will need a scraper, which can 
be made in the following manner: Take a piece of 
clear white pine board seven-eighths inch thick, four 
inches wide and twelve inches long. In one edge of 
this board cut a groove one inch deep. Set in this 
groove, with glue, a firm piece of sole leather one and 
one-half inches wide and as long as the board. Plane 
off the edge of the wood clear down to the leather 
to a rather blunt edge, and be sure to get the edge 
perfectly true. This tool is your scraper, for removing 
the surplus color from the impression board, or print- 
ing block. 

The Printing Color. — Water color cannot be 
used. Use colors that are ground in japan. Make the 
printing color a little thicker than ordinary paint. 
Strain it onto the board and spread it out evenly with 
the scraper, taking the tool with both hands and push- 
ing it forward, pressing down hard. A new board is 
rather difficult to make clean enough to get a good 
impression from, so that it may be necessary to run it 



INFORMATION— GENERAL AND SPECIAL 247 

a few times before doing the work of printing, to 
make it clean. Have just enough color in the pores 
of the wood so that they will be level full, the surface 
being clear of color, which will then ensure a good, 
clean impression. After the board has been in use 
for a time it will clean off nicely by running over it 
once with color. The japan colors used may be thinned 
out with turpentine, making a paste, then add a little 
boiled linseed oil to prevent the color from getting too 
dry while on the board. 

Having coated the impression board with the color, 
take the roller in both hands; choose a point on the 
roller to start with, then put the roller down on the 
board; press evenly and firmly and roll it along the 
board until a full revolution has been made, being 
careful not to go beyond that point, for that would 
cause a lap on the roller ; now pick up the roller with- 
out letting it slip on the board and place it carefully 
on the surface that is to be printed, beginning with 
the same point of the roller that you began with on the 
impression board. Roll firmly, evenly, steadily, and 
do not let the roller slip. This should produce on the 
prepared surface a perfect copy of the impression 
board, in the same way that printers get impressions 
from wood cuts or etchings. 

Care of Roller and Board. — After making the 
impression required clean off the roller with a rag 
dampened with benzine, then run the board as before, 
taking another impression, and so continue until you 
are done printing. Then clean off the board with 
benzine and stiff brush, removing every vestige of the 
printing color. Should the impression board have be- 
come more or less clogged with color you will have to 
resort to the lye, but be careful that it does not eat 
too long and thereby injure the print. Finally, clean 
off with water, let the board dry, then put it away 



248 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

until wanted for the next job. Clean the roller care- 
fully with benzine and set it in a cool place. A certain 
degree of heat will melt the composition, otherwise it 
will keep a very long time. 

Wood Finishes in Favor. — Among the various 
color effects in popular favor as this is written are : 

For Oak. — Natural, light antique, dark antique, 
golden oak in various shades, forest green, Flemish, 
weathered, cathedral, fumed, Antwerp, brown, etc. 

For Ash. — Natural, light and dark antique, golden 
oaks or brown and black tones, and all colors that are 
used on oak. 

For Birch. — Natural, mahogany, forest green, and 
silver gray. 

For Mahogany. — Tuna, light and dark effects, all 
shades, and old mahogany. 

For Walnut. — Natural and dark. 

For Cherry. — Similar to birch finishes. 

For Chestnut. — Similar to oak finishes. 

For Maple. — Natural, pearl gray, silver gray, and 
all shades of mahogany. 

For Cypress, Pine and Whitewood. — Natural, 
oak, mahogany and walnut liquid filler, golden oak, 
Flemish and Antwerp shades, brown oak, forest green 
and green weathered, etc. 

For California Redwood. — Similar to pine fin- 
ishes. 

The Grays in Oaks. — Oak grays are not new, as 
they seem to have originated at the St. Louis Expo- 
sition, held several years ago, where the German con- 
tingent showed considerable of this kind of coloring. 
But apparently the first efforts in this direction did not 
meet with success, but it finally took. The gray idea 
was first used more generally on maple than any other 
wood. There were finishes known as silver gray on 
maple even previous to the St. Louis Exposition, so 



INFORMATION— GENERAL AND SPECIAL 249 

that the finish has been used many years. About five 
or six years ago the gray idea got into the oak field 
in various shades and finishes of gray, resulting in a 
mingling of gray effects, together with the mission and 
with the tobacco-brown finishes, all of which became 
very popular. 

Some of these grays are striking and attractive, 
but all of them are rather cold in appearance; they 
answer very well for summer furnishings, but are 
rather cool for winter. Silver-gray is a popular finish 
in the Mission style. For description of grays and 
formulas see heading, "Wood Stains and Wood Stain- 
ing." 

Colombian Mahogany. — More than twenty ma- 
hogany-like woods are now available as true mahog- 
any. Interest is attached to such woods as Cariania or 
Colombian mahogany, not claimed to be real mahog- 
any, but very like it in grain effects and working qual- 
ities, so that it may be finished in close imitation of 
the real thing. It is undoubtedly a fine cabinet wood, 
and has many good qualities, for when properly sea- 
soned it will not warp, check or shrink, while much 
of it is very beautifully figured. It takes the filler 
well and is susceptible to a high polish. When skill- 
fully stained and finished it requires an expert to tell 
it from real mahogany. 

Filling Checks in Veneers. — To fill the checks 
that appear in veneers after they have been glued up 
so that they will not show, try the following plan, given 
by an expert woodworker : Take fine sawdust derived 
from the wood the veneer is made of and place it in an 
earthen pot, pour boiling water over it and stir it well. 
Then let it stand for a week or ten days, occasionally 
stirring it, at the end of which time let it boil until it 
assumes the condition of a pulp. Then put it in a 
coarse cloth or bag and squeeze it to expel the water. 



250 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

Keep this on hand, and when needed mix some of it 
with thin glue, to make a paste ; rub this well into the 
checks. When it becomes dry and hard clean off with 
sandpaper. If this is properly done it will be very 
difficult to discover traces of cracks or checks. 

Why the Varnish Sweats. — There are several 
things that will cause it. Sometimes the filler has not 
been allowed time enough to dry and will sweat 
through the varnish coat. Then insufficient time be- 
tween coats of varnish will cause it. Where three 
coats of varnish are given some finishers allow a longer 
time between the second and third coats than between 
the first and second. That is a mistake. Longer time 
should be allowed between the first and second coats 
than is necessary between the second and third coats. 
Most plants allow their filled work to stand as long 
as possible. But the varnish coats should not sufTer 
in the making up of this time by rushing the work. 
The filling should have at least forty-eight hours, and 
one-third longer would be still better. If it is the right 
kind of filler it will give good results with that amount 
of time for drying. The coat of varnish on the filling 
should have ample time to dry, for it will shrmk some, 
and hence should have time enough to do its shrinking 
before the next coat is applied. 

Making and Using the Tacky Rag. — This is a 
device intended to follow the dust brush, and it is 
made as follows : Mix together one gallon of varnish, 
one pint of turpentine, and one gill of raw linseed oil. 
Take a piece of cheese-cloth and wet it in this mixture, 
then wring it out dry with the hands, after which 
spread it out until it becomes tacky enough to use 
without danger of its smeaiing the work. This rag 
will gather up all dust, etc., left by the duster. The 
oil prevents the mixture from becoming dry, while 
the turpentine reduces the varnish so that it will not 



INFORMATION— GENERAL AND SPECIAL 251 

tecome gummy. When the rag becomes dirty discard 
it for a new one, 

Ebonizing Piano Keys. — The idea is to stain the 
wood through, and the only way this can be done, we 
believe, is by boiling or steaming. Extract of log- 
wood and bichromate of potash offer the best stains 
for the ebony, if the wood is birch, for it seems that 
it does not prove satisfactory on any other wood. 
Hard maple will polish better than birch, and is per- 
haps a more desirable wood for making the piano 
keys than birch, but for some reason it does not take 
the stain well. 

But let it be observed here that it will not do to place 
the dry wood at once into boiling water, for that seals 
up the outer pores and thus prevents penetration. First 
soak the keys in cold water for several hours before 
placing them in the hot stain; by doing this they will 
take the stain better and there will be less spoiled 
through splitting. 

Polish for Ebony. — Add a small quantity of pow- 
dered Prussian blue to white shellac ; this will enhance 
the black effect. 

Removing Dust before Varnishing.— The 
tacky rag has been described. Another device, very 
ancient, too, is the duster brush with a little raw oil 
rubbed on the tips of the bristles, with which go over 
the work several tirnes. By rubbing the bristles over 
the hand several times they will generate and hold 
electricity enough to pick up the dust when the brush 
is dry. 

Staining Brown Mahogany. — A good shade of 
brown mahogany may be made with brown mahogany 
powder, the same as is usually mixed with red for or- 
dinary mahogany. And the walnut crystals should 
give satisfaction. This gives a beautiful shade of 
brown. Brown mahogany is usually filled with black 



252 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

filler, bodied up in the usual manner, and rubbed to a 
dull finish. Here is another formula: Dissolve five 
drams of an oil scarlet, oil orange, and oil black, 
placing each in a separate vessel, with a pint of benzol 
in each. Perhaps an extra dram should be allowed 
of the black. With these three standard solutions 
almost any shade of oil mahogany can be produced. 
Adding the orange to the black gives a brown, and 
the addition of red gives various shades. 

Perfume for Renovators, Etc.- — Most furniture 
polishes and renovators have an unpleasant odor, and 
to hide it certain essential oils are added to it, oil of 
mirbane being the most commonly used. It is the 
essential oil of bitter almonds and is a cheap product. 
There are several pleasant-smelling oils that might be 
used, but they are too costly. Oil of wintergreen is 
nice, while such oils as that of origanum, thyme, etc., 
ma}'' be used. Lemon oil is another one that is some- 
times used in polishes, or in renovators, as in addition 
to an agreeable perfume it has the quality of cleansing 
a dirty varnished surface, as many of the essential 
oils do, but it is costly. When used with rubbing oil 
it quickens the rubbing process about one-third, it is 
said. But if used in this way the work should after- 
wards be well cleaned off; if rubbed with a pad on a 
varnished surface it will dull the varnish, like curled 
hair. 

Hardening Varnish for Table Tops. — The Ger- 
man method is to add a small amount of alcohol to 
the varnish intended for table tops, to harden it, while 
at the same time it does not impair the elasticity of the 
varnish; it does, however, dim the varnish, but this 
effect finally wears away. 

Solubility of Varnish Gums. — The gums used in 
making varnishes are soluble in oil under heat as fol- 
lows : Kauri copal, 509 deg. Fahr. ; Manila, 468 deg. 



INFORMATION— GJiNERAL AND SPECIAL 253 

Fahr. ; North Coast, 548 deg, Fahr, ; Zanzibar, 156 
deg. Fahr. ; Benguela, 507 deg. Fahr. ; Sierra Leone, 
460 deg. Fahr.; Angola, 539 deg. Fahr,; Brazilian, 
453 deg- Fahr.; Damar, 314 deg. Fahr.; Mastic, 313 
deg. Fahr.; Asphaltum, 349 deg. Fahr. 

Covering Capacity of Varnish. — It is estimated 
that one gallon of shellac varnish will cover, on smooth 
pine, first coat, 400 square feet ; and 500 square feet on 
succeeding coats. Copal varnish will cover 350 to 400 
square feet first coat, smooth pine, 500 square feet 
second coat, and nearly 600 square feet on third coat. 
Copal varnish will cover 50 to 75 square feet more on 
filled than on unfilled wood. 

Finishing Laboratory Table Top. — Owing to the 
fact that glass vessels and other breakable objects are 
used in the laboratory it is not expedient to have mar- 
ble, slate, glass, or other hard substance for the labora- 
tory table top. Only wood is available, but wood be- 
comes very dirty and unsightly from the spilling of 
the chemicals upon it, rendering frequent renovation 
necessary. Here are some practical formulas for ren- 
dering a wooden table top immune from the action of 
the chemicals : 

Solution No. 1 — 

Copper sulphate 50 grams 

Potassium chlorate 40 grams 

Water, q. s 500 c. c. 

Solution No. 2 — 

Aniline hydrochloride 50 grams 

Ammonium chloride 40 grams 

Water, q, s 500 c. c. 

Solution No. 3 — • 

Potassium bichromate 50 grams 

Water, q. s 500 c. c. 

Solution No. A — 

Sodium sulphite 80 grams 

Sulphuric acid 20 c. c. 

Water, q. s 500 c. c. 

Solution No. 5 — 

Soap suds 



254 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

These solutions are to be applied in the following 
order: Nos, i, 2, i, 2, 3, 4, 3, 4, and 5. Be sure that 
one coat is dry before applying the next. This is very 
important. Apply the liquids with a bristle brush, as 
you would a water stain, allowing the wood to absorb 
all that it can, which will make the work more durable 
and attractive. The soapsuds *'fix" or set the color, 
which is intensified by the sulphuric acid. After the 
soap solution is dry the surface is rubbed with vaseline, 
which gives a soft and pleasing finish, besides being 
water-repellent. A great deal of hard rubbing is re- 
quired on each coat. The color at the finish is a rich 
dark brown. 

Formula No. 2. — The surface of the table top 
should be treated with a solution of copper sulphate 
one part, potassium chlorate one part, dissolved in 
eight parts of water, made boiling hot. Apply this 
solution to the wood and let it soak in. When dry 
apply a coat of the following solution : Aniline hydro- 
chlorate three parts, water twenty parts. Two coats 
of each solution, alternately. When dry apply a full 
coat of raw linseed oil, rubbing it well into the wood, 
using a woolen cloth for the purpose ; after which wipe 
off surplus oil and wipe dry. The color will be ebony 
black. The table top may be kept in good condition by 
washing off now and then with weak soapsuds, allow- 
ing this to dry, then rubbing with linseed oil. 

Formula No. 3. — This formula assumes that the 
acid solutions are not necessary, as it is the vaseline 
finish that makes it water and acid proof. You can 
take your choice. Take eight ounces of iron sulphate, 
two pounds of logwood extract, three ounces of nut- 
galls, two ounces of Chinese blue, and four ounces of 
iron carbonate, boil in one gallon of strong vinegar 
for two or three hours. When cooled strain and 
apply, either hot or cold. If one application does not 



INFORMATION— GENERAL AN»D SPECIAL 255 

give a jet black on becoming dry give it a second coat. 
For quicker results dissolve extract of logwood in only 
enough to answer the purpose, or until you get the de- 
sired strength, then strain and apply. By going over 
this with a tincture of muriate of iron the color may 
be developed to any depth. Finally, sandpaper smooth, 
and then apply the vaseline. 

An expert, speaking on this subject, says the acid 
treatment is merely to darken the wood, and that it 
has no real value as to the wear of the table tops. 
We favor the first formula, mainly because we have 
seen it worked out satisfactorily. It probably is not 
true that the acids and rubbing together have no other 
effect than darkening and polishing the wood. In 
process No. i each coat of stain, etc., was rubbed vig- 
orously and long into the wood, especially the soap 
solution ; the vaseline gave the desired polish, but cer- 
tainly was not the chief protecting agent. 

French Artificial Wax. — Melt together one hun- 
dred parts of paraffin wax, fifty parts of clear pale 
rosin, and one part of carnauba wax. Then mix five 
parts of talc and enough yellow aniline or powdered 
curcuma to give it the yellow beeswax color. Stir the 
mass until it is cold. 

Chamois or Goat Skin. — Chamois skins are 
mostly the skins of young goats or kids. The chamois 
skin is heavier than that from the sheep, and also 
coarser. For strength and durability the chamois skin 
is to be preferred, but for ordinary use the oil-tanned 
sheep skin does very well and is much cheaper. The 
tanning is done in about the same manner as with the 
chamois skin. 

Concerning Sponges. — ^The sponge is an animal. 
Deep water sponges are best. Good sponges come 
from Nassau and Cuba, but most of them come from 
a reef off the Florida coast. The sponge fishers fill the 



256 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

sponges with sand to make them heavier, as they are 
sold by weight. Bleaching makes a sponge look nicer, 
but it injures it. A trick is to pack a certain portion 
of inferior sponges with the best grade, the lot being 
then sold as first grade. You cannot tell by looking 
at a sponge whetlier it is loaded or not. The only 
way to do is to buy from a reputable firm. Keep the 
sponges in a rather damp' place when not in use. 
Sponges should be used within a year after being taken 
out of the water. A weak solution of ammonia will 
cleanse a dirty sponge and do it no harm; it acts also 
as a bleach. Or a strong solution of sal soda will do 
as well as ammonia. 

Testing Turpentine. — There is adulterated tur- 
pentine and turpentine substitutes. Turpentine made 
by synthesis, also by admixtures of mineral oils. When 
you undertake to thin varnish with turpentine you 
should know whether the same is genuine or false. 
A mixture of both turpentine and benzine is a bad 
thing to put into varnish, for they will not mix, no 
more than oil and water. 

By placing a little turpentine in a saucer in the sun 
you can tell whether it is good or bad. If genuine it 
will evaporate completely in two or three hours at 
most. Place some on a sheet of white paper; if pure 
it will soon evaporate and leave no stain. Weigh a 
sample of suspected turpentine and compare its weight 
with that of standard pure turpentine. The pure is 
the lighter of the two. 

China Wood Oil. — This oil has been in use for 
several years in connection with varnishes, but mostly 
in the cheaper grades, rosin being largely used in them. 
Such varnishes are made for cheap furniture and in- 
terior work, also for dipping. 

The formula for making a durable cheap furniture 
varnish in which China oil figures is as follows: 



INFORMATION— GENERAL AND SPECIAL 257 

Melt 1 20 lbs. of rosin to 500 deg. Fahr. and add 4 
lbs. oxide of calcium; then add 12 gals, of China wood 
oil, and run the heat up to 600 deg. Fahr., cooling to 
350 deg., then adding 6 lbs. of powdered litharge; heat 
now to 575 deg., and finally cool off to 325 deg. Then 
thin with 30 gals, of naphtha. 

Experts say that China wood oil cannot be heated 
by itself to a higher temperature than 450 deg. Fahr. 
without danger of gelatinizing, or becoming a mass 
of jelly insoluble in all but the costliest liquids. This 
is said to occur even in conjunction with other sub- 
stances in varnish making. If more oil is wanted a 
boiled linseed oil must be used, one having three 
pounds of borate of manganese to the fifty gallons of 
oil, and this may be used in equal proportions with 
China oil. 

It seems that this oil has a fatty content, and that 
it is this that causes varnish containing it to flat out 
on exterior work. Paint makers who have used it in 
making enamels say that the paints become fatty in the 
cans. Used with lead paint it causes the paint to "liv- 
er" or thicken, due to the chemical action of the lead, 
or excess of alkali on the wood oil and rosin. 

Brush Preservation. — Once a brush has been put 
in good varnish and on good work keep it there and 
keep it clean. When placed in a keeper have the liquid 
in which it is kept come well up over the bristles, so 
that none of the varnish may dry in the butt of the 
brush; keep the keeper in a closet and keep it clean. 
There is difference of opinion among workmen as to 
what is the best liquid for keeping the brush in when 
not in use. Many prefer to keep it in the varnish in 
which it is used. This saves time and labor when 
taking out the brush to use. But if he uses the brush 
in various varnishes it will not matter what it is kept 
in as regards the kind of varnish. Raw linseed oil is 



258 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

a good medium, but it will have to be thoroughly 
worked out of the brush before putting it into the var- 
nish. Some use a mixture of oil and turpentine, but 
this mixture also will have to be worked out before 
putting the brush into the varnish. 

A brush should be kept in a tightly closed keeper 
with the brush suspended so that the bristles will not 
touch the bottom of the container. Whatever the 
liquid in the keeper, be careful to clean out the brush 
before putting it into the varnish that you are going 
to use; if in oil, then wash it out in turpentine, then 
work it well into some of the varnish you are going 
to use, and don't put this varnish back into that from 
which it was taken. A little oil or turpentine in the 
brush working out on to your job will cause lots of 
trouble to you. None of this varnish need be wasted ; 
keep it in a can and use on some common work. We 
would suggest keeping the brushes in varnish thinned 
a little with turpentine, and changing the same at cer- 
tain intervals, using the old varnish from the keeper 
as suggested above. 

All new brushes contain more or less dirt, and this 
should be shaken out before the brush is put in the 
varnish. After shaking out loose bristles and dirt, 
wash it in some turpentine or benzine, and then work 
it in some clean varnish and use the brush on medium 
work before using it on first class. 

Finishers' Supplies Described. — Sandpaper 
comes in sizes oo, i, 2, 2]/^, and 3. Pulverized pumice- 
stone, FFF, or Extra Fine ; FF, F, Fine ; o, or Usual ; 
I, Coarse; ^, Grain, Rottenstone, powdered. Steel 
wool, o. Fine; i, Medium; 2, Medium coarse; 3, 
Coarse ; Shavings, Fine ; Shavings, Medium ; Shavings, 
Coarse. Rubbing Felt in sheets 18x18, but cut to any 
desired size; Hard Mexican, one-quarter inch and 
one-half inch thick; Soft Mexican, same thickness 



INFORMATION— GENERAL AND SPECIAL 259 

as hard; and Soft Spanish, same as Soft Mexican. 
Rubber pads may be bought but are easily prepared. 

The Waxes. — The waxes used in making furniture 
poHshes and floor waxes are as follows : Beeswax, 
white and yellow; Carnauba wax occurs in thin films 
on the leaves of a palm growing abundantly in Brazil ; 
it is very hard and brittle, of a grayish color, and 
melts at from i8o to 185 deg. Fahr. It is used with 
ceresin or beeswax for floor polishes; Ceresin is the 
refined form of Ozokerite or mineral wax found in 
nature, and it can be had in yellow color or white. It 
resembles paraflin wax to some extent, but is less 
scaly. It has driven beeswax and paraflin wax out 
of furniture and floor polish manufacture to quite an 
extent. Its melting point varies somewhat, but is near 
that of beeswax, or usually from 135 to 140 deg. Fahr. 

Testing Varnish. — To test varnish for drying 
hard without thickness try it on a sheet of glass, at a 
temperature not lower than 53 deg. nor higher than 
68 deg. At the end of twenty- four hours partly cover 
the varnish with a wet cloth, using clear cold water. 
Examine after eighteen hours. The damp part will 
show alteration, but the surface should resume its 
former luster and general appearance in six hours. 

Floor varnish properly applied to a well prepared 
surface of wood or glass should dry dust-free in from 
six to eight hours at 53 deg., in daylight, ceasing to be 
tacky at the end of ten or twelve hours, and quite hard 
in twenty- four to thirty hours. It should stand rub- 
bing with the dry finger at the end of twenty-four 
hours, and take a smooth polish with pumicestone and 
w^ater without softening or tearing. It should also 
stand the wet cloth test, and after drying for twenty- 
four hours at 53 deg. the varnish should have the same 
gloss as the same or similar varnish applied side by 
same on the same surface. 



260 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

Good varnish works easy under the brush, flows 
out well, levels up perfectly, has good luster, has full- 
ness and does not die away, sets free from dust in a 
reasonable time, and finally becomes hard enough to 
resist a certain amount of friction. 

A good test for varnish consists in coating a sheet 
of glass and when allowed a proper time for drying 
submerging it in water. If the varnish shows white 
on its surface it is poor. But it must be remembered 
that nearly all long-oil varnishes will show white 
sooner than short-oil varnishes, because they contain 
more oil than the latter and less hard gum. Fine car- 
riage finishing varnishes show mud-spotting worse 
than the other varnishes used because ^'long-oil" var- 
nishes. 

The drying is one of the most important tests for 
varnish. Applied to wood, glass or metal it should in 
twenty- four hours have dried sufificiently to have thor- 
ough adhesion, and must within the ensuing twenty- 
four hours have entirely dried away, without, how- 
ever, losing a certain elasticity and softness. If it 
dries more quickly no defect is thereby indicated, but 
if it dries more slowly it is evident that it was not 
sufficiently boiled, that an insufficient quantity of driers 
was added during the boiling process, or that it con- 
tains some foreign matter. 

Varnish should be tested to ascertain its drying 
properties and relative durability. 

A simple test for brittleness is to allow a drop of 
the varnish to trickle on to a narrow piece of glass. 
Note the time required to dry, and when dry see if 
the varnish can be removed readily by the thumb nail. 
If too brittle it will easily cleave from the glass, in 
which case it is of no value for finishing coats. 

Outside varnishes should be tested by application to 



INFORMATION— GENERAL AND SPECIAL 261 

pieces of hard wood, previously filled, and should 
then be placed in an exposed position for two years. 

Some varnishes seem to have the property of rapidly 
darkening the surface to which they are appHed, espe- 
cially on grained work. It is well to make tests of 
various kinds of varnish on painted and grained panels 
and note if this peculiarity exists. 

Price is one pretty fair test for a varnish. If offered 
a pale varnish at a rather low price it is reasonable to 
assume that it was not made from high-grade varnish 
gum. 

It requires only a short time to ascertain the drying 
or hardening qualities of a varnish, but it will take 
months to get a fair idea of its wearing qualities. 
Varnishes are usually valued for their transparency, 
gloss, drying and working qualities, but more so for 
their wearing quality and clearness. To ascertain by 
comparison the relative value of varnish the color 
should be considered, the pale ones being of the most 
value, as the darker ones are liable to darken the 
ground, and in cases as the finishing of light natural 
woods this is most undesirable. It should work freely 
and flow out evenly, and after several months' ex- 
posure should not crack, powder, chip or rub off. 

To ascertain in some measure the quality of the 
varnish take a large pane of clean glass, drop a little 
of each of the varnishes to be tried at one end of the 
glass, side by side, then set the glass in an inclined 
position. Then observe carefully the varnishes as they 
flow down over the surface of the glass to the lower 
edge, note the setting and drying of each, also examine 
the film, whether it be wavy or smooth. Smoothness 
will show the varnish to be well made, while a wavi- 
ness shows it to be too thick, or poorly made. If the 
varnish drips freely from the edge it indicates that it 



262 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

« 

has been made frDm good copal gum. If the drij) 
shows a tardiness or a tendency to draw back it shows 
the presence of rosin. 

Or apply the varnishes on a dead black flat surface; 
when dry expose them to the sun. A varnish contain- 
ing rosin will, in a few weeks, show it by silking and 
alligatoring. 

A good varnish for architectural purposes may be 
known by these indications: Absence of much color; 
constancy of consistency; characteristic odor, in which 
turpentine predominates; ease of flowing under the 
brush; free flowing or running; will not easily show 
brush marks ; dries rather quickly, though not unduly 
so; retains its elasticity and suppleness and will never 
be sticky; stands exposure to the weather and all ordi- 
nary wear and tear. 

A low-grade varnish dries very quickly, though some 
kinrls will become soft after a time succeeding the 
drying, remaining soft and sticky indefinitely; dries 
hrird but never is supple and elastic ; shows white un- 
der the water test ; scratches under the finger-nail test ; 
difficult to apply, setting quickly, in some cases setting 
as soon as apj)lied ; rank odor, benzine predominating; 
brilliant luster, but subject to cracking badly. 

Now and then we come across some very light- 
colored copal varnish, sometimes called white copal 
varnish, or that made from the lightest bits of copal 
gum, yet we are suspicious that it gets its whiteness 
from damar gum. There is a simple test for this : 
To one part of the varnish add two or three parts of 
rectified sulphuric ether. If the mixture remains as 
clear as water the copal is pure; but if a milky turbid- 
ity follows it is adulterated cither with gum damar or 
damar varnish. 

Preventing Ftt.ler erom Caking. — To keep the 
paste filler from settling or caking after thinning with 



INFORMATION— GENERAL AND SPECIAJ. 2oJ 

turpentine, benzine or substitute turpentine it is not 
necessary to use an emulsion, as cornstarch will do; 
not more than 20 per cent, of the weight of the silex 
used, and 10 per cent, is usually enough. Use bone- 
dry starch of best grade. Asbestine powder, 25 per 
cent., will do, though it is not quite as effective as 
starch, but it is cheaper. 

Baking Varnish on Wood. — The present status of 
the varnish industry does not admit of the baking of 
varnishes on the general run of wood furniture at a 
temperature above 120 deg. Fahr. ; and that only where 
the humidity is automatically controlled. In tests made 
to determine what saving could be made in baking 
varnishes for aeroplanes it was found that five to six 
hours, at no deg. Fahr., was the highest temperature 
and shortest time that could be used for varnishes 
that met the Government specifications. With a short- 
oil rubbing varnish the time might be shortened, but 
the temperature could not be increased. 

Crackle Finish. — This finish is intended to simu- 
late varnished work that has become fissured or 
"crackled" through, extreme age. Three methods are 
here given. One way is to finish the work in the usual 
manner, and then, before the varnish is quite dry 
enough to rub, say, forty-eight hours, unless it be a 
quick-drying varnish, apply a coat of shellac, though 
it must be applied thin, about one pound of gum to 
the gallon of alcohol. It will likely take several days 
for the desired crackle to appear. Another way is to 
apply a light coat of shellac and scratch lines through 
it with a very fine point; then revarnish with light 
coat of varnish. 

Another method: After the object has been filled 
or stained, or both, apply a coat of shellac, and when 
this is dry place spots of boiled oil on the surface, here 
and there, these being left to dry as they will, and of 



264 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

course they do not become dry, but rather soft. Then 
apply a coat of varnish, and in time the varnish wilt 
crack over the oil spots, on account of unequal con- 
traction, and that is the crackle finish. 

Finishing Mahoganized Birch. — Many finishers 
are not filling their mahoganized birch but are putting 
on two coats of shellac instead, putting on the first 
coat very heavy and brushing it well into the wood, 
then they are at a loss to know why their finish is dark 
and lacks the clear transparency that reveals to view 
all the finer markings of the figure. To draw out and 
preserve all the details of the figure, birch should be 
filled, and if an extra-fine finish is desired, it is well 
to apply a wash coat of shellac and sand before filling. 
Much mahoganized birch that shows a plain surface 
and indistinct figure would be made beautiful by being 
filled with a dark filler to make the pores show up and 
increase the striking features of the grain. 

Finishing Birch Veneers. — Well-made rotary- 
cut birch veneer makes a splendid face veneer for large 
panels, and if finished correctly presents a modest 
though strikingly beautiful figure. This wood is 
worthy of considerable care in finishing. A good way 
to finish it is as follows : It should be first sponged 
before it receives its final sandpapering in the cabinet 
room, and on reaching the finishing room give it a 
coat of stain a little lighter in color than the depth de- 
sired for the final finish. This will raise the grain 
somewhat. After the stain has thoroughly dried out it 
should be sandpapered with sharp, fine sandpaper to 
remove this raised grain, after which coat it with the 
full-colored stain. 

To more thoroughly draw out the figure of birch, 
fill it with a dark filler to make a dark pore. Birch that 
has been water-stained should always be filled to avoid 
pinholes, although the filler need not be as heavy as 



INFORMATION—GENERAL AND SPECIAL 265 

for some of the more porous woods, such as walnut 
and mahogany. After the wood has been filled and 
given time to dry, body up in the usual way for either 
dull or polished finish. 

Oxalic Acid Preparation. — Oxalic acid intended 
for bleaching purpose may be prepared in the follow- 
ing manner : Dissolve about one pound of the acid in 
hot or warm water, and apply it hot if possible, for in 
that condition it acts more quickly. The solution may 
be kept on hand by placing it in a glass or porcelain- 
lined vessel, well stoppered and labeled, as it is a rank 
poison. The addition of strong vinegar or acetic acid 
makes the bleach more effective, and somewhat less 
poisonous. 

Non-Cracking Linseed Oil. — A very elastic oil 
may be prepared by the addition of rubber, whence its 
name, rubberoil. It is intended for paint used on ex- 
posed surfaces that are subject to more than ordinary 
expansion and contraction. Procure pure Para rub- 
ber and shred it with a sharp knife ; this must be done 
by cutting it under water, to facilitate the cutting. 
Dissolve three pounds of the shredded rubber in eight 
gallons of turpentine with a gentle heat in a pan, and 
when solution is complete add two gallons of boiled lin- 
seed oil, warmed to a temperature of lOO deg. Fahr., 
and mix well. Strain while warm and keep in a warm 
place. Do not do this work near an open fire; a hot 
water bath is better, though the factory would use a 
"jacket pan." 

Figureless Quartered Oak. — The call to-day is 
for quartered oak having no figure. This arises from 
the popularity of the greenish-gray finish seen in archi- 
tectural work, and to almost the same extent in fur- 
niture. The idea is to get what occurs normally, only 
through the lapse of time, with bare oak. It is a sort of 
gray weathering, or greenish-gray, as stated. 



266 :i HE EXPERT WOOD FINJSHEK 

High Polish on Red Cedar. — This is applicableto 
the finishing of red cedar chests, answering a question. 
Give the chest a coat of hot Hnseed oil, and after 
twenty-four hours apply a coat of shellac. Either 
white or orange shellac may be used, being governed 
in the selection by the shade of color one desires the 
finished article to be. When the shellac is thoroughly 
dry apply a coat of varnish, after first sanding the shel- 
lac smooth with very fine sandpaper. If a fine finish is 
desired, put on a second coat of varnish when the first 
coat is dry enough to permit. When the last coat of 
varnish is thoroughly dry, rub to a smooth surface with 
pumicestone and water, using finely ground pumice- 
stone for the purpose. Allow it to stand for twenty- 
four hours and then rub it with rottenstone and water. 
After a few hours, polish it in the usual way. 

Finishing Birdseye Maple. — All dark streaks 
must be bleached out. If any eyes have fallen out the 
holes must be filled with putty made from fine maple 
sawdust and glue size, making a stiff paste. Set the job 
away until the paste filled holes are dry. If holes ap- 
pear after you have started finishing use shellac instead 
of glue in making paste filler. A little shellac in the 
hole before filling will be better. Use white shellac or 
white glue, as the case may require. 

First-coat with white shellac, and body up with white 
Damar or other quite pale varnish. This wood does 
not need to be heavily coated to get a good finish. If 
to be rubbed dull only enough varnish to stand rubbing 
is needed ; rub with oil and powdered pumicestone. If 
to be polished, then a heavier body of varnish will be 
required. 

Wax Finishing Small Articles. — The way that 
axe handles and many other small objects are polished 
with wax is by placing them in a revolving machine 



INFORMATION— GENERAL AND SPECIAL 267 

known as a tumbler, with shredded paraffin wax, mixed 
with shavings, thrown in. 

Finishing Ouija Boards. — One woodworker 
made 40,000 of these boards last year. They are made 
of three-ply material. A high finish is required, so 
that they may slide easily. It is a tedious process, sand- 
papering and rubbing each one by hand, so that the 
following method, the invention of a handy finisher, 
shows how to do the work more expeditiously and 
cheaper. He made a little machine like a vertical belt 
Sander, having a cotton belt in place of the sandpaper. 
He applied a little oil and rottenstone powder to this 
belt, and then worked the boards against it, getting a 
smooth, highly polished surface in a few seconds. As 
many boards were done in an hour on the machine as 
were done by hand in an entire day. 

Oiled Sandpaper. — To sandpaper varnish without 
scratching it soak the sandpaper with raw linseed oil; 
mineral oil will not do. Whether oil on the surface 
of the work, using a dry sandpaper, would give the 
same result can be determined by trial. 

Rubbed vs. Varnished Surfaces. — At this writing 
the dull finish has the call ; but the public are not wise 
to their own interests. The dull-rubbed finish will not 
protect an article as well as the one finished in gloss. 
You never see a piano in dull or rubbed finish. This 
because it is desirable to protect the finish with a better 
medium than rubbed varnish. 

Birdseye Maple. — Birdseye maple veneers should 
be laid face down, for if laid the other way they will 
have their eyes scratched out before getting to the 
finishing room. This is the statement made by an 
expert woodworker having twenty-eight years* experi- 
ence. 

Polished End Wood. — Sometimes there comes 



268 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

from the woodworker a piece of furniture that has 
ends of wood so highly polished that stain will not 
take on it; it is caused by the sandpaper man's paper 
being too smooth, and in order to make it cut he puts 
on extra pressure that almost burns the wood. You 
can remove the gloss with a piece of medium fine 
sandpaper. 

All- Around Varnish. — Varnish makers are put- 
ting on the market a varnish that they say is good for 
all varnish purposes ; don't believe it. No one varnish 
is suitable for all purposes. 

Making Brown Mahogany. — Don't get it too 
dark. Let the stain be light enough to produce a clear, 
transparent color. Prepare the stain by dissolving 
walnut crystals in water of about 150 deg. Fahr. If 
the water is too near the boiling point it will likely 
melt the crystals into a gummy mass, and dissolution 
>vill be very slow. Place the crystals in the hot water 
and stir well until they are dissolved. Use the stain 
cold. The usual method of making a stain is to pour 
the water on the stain. But not so with walnut crys- 
tals. There is a shade of brown mahogany on the 
market that has met with much favor. It is rather 
duller than that produced by walnut crystals, but for 
that reason seems to be the more admired. And it is 
more difficult to make. First dissolve six ounces of 
bichromate of potash in six quarts of water. Coat the 
wood with this and allow it to stand until dry. Then 
take eight ounces of English oak powder, five ounces 
of brown mahogany powder, and two and one-half 
ounces of jet black Nigrosine. Dissolve these in six 
quarts of water, and after sandpapering the wood with 
fine paper to remove any fuzz raised by the first stain, 
put on a good, even coat. 

Humidity in Finishing Room. — ^While excessive 
moisture in the finishing: room is to be avoided there 



INFORMATION—GENERAL AND SPECIAL 269 

must be a certain amount of humidity present. To 
obtain this set a number of pails around the room, 
filled with water. An automatic process follows; as 
the temperature of the room rises and the air begins 
to dry out in consequence, there will be increased 
evaporation of the water in the pails to maintain hu- 
midity. When temperature falls evaporation gradually 
decreases. In a temperature of 80 deg. Fahr., with a 
high humidity, evaporation will be slow; but in the 
same temperature, with a low humidity, the evapora- 
tion will be comparatively fast. 

Toning Down Circassian. — Fashion at this time 
demands quiet figures in woods. The strong contrast- 
ing figuring of Circassian can be toned down with light 
walnut stain. This will not destroy the finer markings 
nor darken the color too much. The only parts that 
will be affected by the stain will be the real light ones. 
These parts should have a coat of stain and let dry. 
Then the whole surface should be stained. This will 
produce a uniform coloring and eliminate the too 
striking effects objected to. Use a water stain, made 
from any walnut powder (brown) or walnut crystals. 
After drying sandpaper the wood lightly with very fine 
paper before filling. 

Staining Mahogany. — Notwithstanding the fact 
that to the admirer of the natural color of wood, which 
grows richer and deeper with age, such woods as ma- 
hogany and walnut make their strongest appeal in 
natural form, practically all of the mahogany used in 
the cabinet world to-day is stained. Moreover, some- 
times it is stained until one is able to recognize the wood 
only through its figure and grain, the color being so al- 
tered as to not materially resemble the natural color of 
mahogany. Sometimes it is darkened to a fair resem- 
blance of the natural color of black walnut, while at 
other times it is given a strong green tint. These ex- 



270 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

tr ernes are extremely objectionable. They run as fads 
through the various seasons, for short periods, mainly. 
Properly, mahogany is stained to deepen and bring out 
artificially in a short time the natural beauty of the 
wood which develops in the course of years. 

Finishing Inside of Case Goods. — It used to be 
the practice in former years to finish the inside of 
furniture a lighter shade than the outside, but now the 
general way is to employ a special bright color, as a 
rich golden color for the medium and light shades of 
brown mahogany, which makes a striking contrast and 
a perfect harmony of color. To make this particular 
finish dissolve one ounce of oil yellow in one quart of 
brown japan, and when dissolved reduce it with tur- 
pentine to the desired shade. Heat will hasten the dis- 
solution of oil yellow, though the stuff must not be 
placed over a fire ; the hot water bath is best. Stir fre- 
quently, then strain it to remove sediment. This stain 
will stand considerable reducing, and should be used 
just strong enough to tint the wood the desired golden 
hue. It shows to the best advantage where the inside 
has been mahogany veneered, although it looks well on 
birch or any white wood. The shade may be varied 
by the addition of oil brown, to be dissolved in the 
same way as yellow, and added in the liquid form. 

Another drawer finish is made as follows: First 
apply a coat of heavy orange shellac; when dry sand- 
paper well and give a coat of the following prepara- 
tion : Dissolve four ounces of powdered borax in one 
gallon of hot water and, while the preparation is still 
hot, stir into it four pounds of orange shellac. Pour 
the shellac in slowly and stir constantly until thor- 
oughly dissolved. Do not use until cold, and do not 
brush enough to make a foam. When applied over a 
coat of spirit shellac this preparation gives a smooth, 
satin-like finish. It is not as water-proof as oil var- 



INFORMATION— GENERAL AND SPECIAL 271 

nish, therefore if the job is to be water-rubbed it ought 
not be put on until after the rubbing has been done. 

A dull finish, made without rubbing, may be made 
by the following formula : Heat one gallon of water to 
almost the boiling point, then drop in six and one- 
half ounces of powdered borax, and stir until the lat- 
ter is thoroughly dissolved. Pour slowly into this 
liquid three pounds of orange shellac gum, stirring con- 
stantly until the gum is dissolved. 

To make the beautiful dull finish that is such a dis- 
tinguishing feature of the inside of some high-grade 
furniture that is on the market, a reasonable amount of 
care must be used to put the wood in shape to receive 
the finish. If the drawer bottoms are three-ply, with a 
porous veneer on the face, the bottom should be filled 
before it is put in the frame. Filling first saves a lot of 
work. When this is done there are no corners to pick 
out, and the filler can be put on and removed much 
more easily. When the filler is dry the whole should 
be coated with spirit shellac, putting on a good heavy 
coat. Sand this coat nice and smooth, and, after dust- 
ing off clean, coat with the dull finish as given above. 
A good coat of this finishing should be applied with 
as little brushing as possible. It will not show laps or 
streaks when dry, so that a slight run or sag will do 
no harm. The main thing to avoid is froth, which will 
come from too much brushing. 

If an extra good job is desired, put on two coats of 
the spirit shellac, and sand before putting on the finish. 
Remember the borax-shellac composition is a "finish," 
and ought not to be used except for that purpose. With 
a well-prepared foundation of one or two coats of 
spirit shellac or other quick-drying surfacer that sands 
nicely, this "finish" will produce a surface that is 
beautifully dull and as soft and pleasing to the touch 
as a piece of satin. Use the finish cold. 



272 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

The inside of all case goods should be finished con- 
siderably lighter in color than the outside in order to 
relieve the monotony of color; and create a pleasing 
and harmonious contrast. This gives the inside that 
distinctive and chaste appearance which is so attractive 
to the cultured eye ; and which at once stamps the goods, 
in the opinion of cultured people, with the earmark 
of quality. In the case of mahogany goods, the same 
stain that is used on the outside and allowed to dry 
as it is put on, may be used on the inside, but wiped 
off before it becomes dry. This will produce a lighter 
shade of the same color as the outside. 

The inside of a cabinet should never be finished in a 
gloss ; to do so is to stamp it with the seal of cheapness, 
no matter how good everything else may be. Far bet- 
ter to merely put on a coat of shellac, sand and wipe it 
off, than to put on a coat of gloss varnish and leave it 
in that condition. A coat of shellac over the stain, and 
when dry sanded and a coat of dull varnish applied, 
will give the inside the rich, clean appearance that ap- 
peals to people of quality. 

If an article is faced with a fancy mahogany veneer 
and the inside is a plain mahogany, the stain used on 
the inside should not be more than 25 per cent, as dark 
as the outside. If the inside is birch a darker stain 
may be used, but should not be more than 50 per cent. 
as dark as the stain used on the face. The idea should 
be to make the inside look as much like the wood one 
hopes to imitate as possible, and at the same time pre- 
serve that harmonizing contrast that is such a pleasing 
and distinguishing feature of certain classes and makes 
of goods. The same thing applies to walnut and all 
other woods. 

The inside of an article should never be finished with 
a gloss if a pleasing effect is desired. No matter 
whether the outside is dull or polished, the inside should 



INFORMATION— GENERAL AND SPECIAL 273 

always be dull finish. It will help greatly in producing 
a smooth finish if an oil stain is used on the inside; 
this will not raise the grain and will eliminate the 
necessity of sandpapering between coats of finish if 
care is taken to keep them clean. A coat of shellac and 
a coat of flat varnish will produce a good interior finish. 
If a spirit shellac is used it should be sandpapered. 

To make a nice finish on plywood drawer bottoms 
they should be filled before they go into the drawers. 
If a water stain is used on the drawers it may be ap- 
plied over the filler and then wiped off with a cloth. 
This will usually make it dark enough to match the 
sides. But for inside work I would recommend oil 
stain as more satisfactory. On this inside work there 
is not the same objection on the ground of fading as 
there is when used on the outside, for the reason that 
the fading is caused by light, which does not reach 
the drawers to the same extent as the outside. The oil 
stain does not raise the grain of the wood, which in- 
sures a smooth job with less work. One difficulty 
about an oil stain on drawers is that of first-coating 
with a varnish surfacer, which moves the stain, while 
some object to the use of shellac for this work because 
of its present high cost. But the difference in the 
amount of labor involved, between an oil and a water 
stain, in preparing this work for the final coat of finish, 
is sufficiently in favor of the oil stain to more than com- 
pensate for the extra cost of the shellac. 

The Curly Woods. — The beauty of figure derived 
from certain woods with what is known as a curly 
growth has long been recognized in connection with 
certain well-known cabinet woods, but of late years the 
list of woods producing a desirable curly figure has 
been materially lengthened. Back in the older days we 
knew and appreciated curly walnut, mahogany, maple 
and ash, but of later years we have added to these the 



274 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

recognition of many other woods, including birch, 
beech, sycamore, oak, poplar, magnolia, gum, pine and 
fir. Perhaps there are a few other woods that have 
had local recognition, but this list will give an idea of 
the wide range of woods in which the curly growth in 
the tree may result in a beautiful figure effect for face 
work. 

The lighter woods, like magnolia, poplar and gum, 
have been used in the past more for staining to get 
effects than any other way. Indeed, there has perhaps 
been too much staining in imitation of other woods and 
not enough effort to develop the natural beauty of the 
curly figure. Maple is a sort of exception in this. 
This wood has always been appreciated for its natural 
creamy white beauty, and the curly maple, like the 
birdseye, has suffered less from excessive staining than 
any other of the light woods. 

In times gone by the idea in staining curly woods 
seems to have been that of getting a bright color on 
them. Beech, sycamore and birch were stained in imi- 
tation of mahogany, or at least given a reddish color, 
and the high coloring was sometimes used on poplar 
also. To-day the tendency to color with stain is more 
pleasing because it runs to brown tones, to walnut- 
like colors, which is much more satisfactory than the 
more striking color stains of bygone days. What we 
really need to do with our curly woods, however, is to 
make more effort toward developing their natural 
beauty and to use only such stains as will bring out 
and emphasize and not obscure. 

In the resinous woods we have enough striking fig- 
ure, anyway. Take yellow pine from the south or fir 
from the west, and when we strike a curly growth the 
figure and color are striking enough within themselves, 
without any stain effects other than such as will temper 
or harmonize the different parts. Of course, we have 



INFORMATION— GENERAL AND SPECIAL 275 

enough natural color in walnut, mahogany and oak, 
and these are seldom stained except to conform to cer- 
tain peculiar shadings that may be in popular favor at 
the time. 

In many of the other woods, such as birch, beech and 
sycamore, as well as poplar and magnolia, which is 
really a kindred line, there may well be more effort 
toward developing what natural beauty tones these 
woods possess, just as we have with curly maple in 
the past, for nearly every one of our cabinet woods has 
a beauty in itself that should be recognized and utilized 
wherever practical. 

How Sandpaper is Made. — The paper is made 
from Manila fiber, mostly old ropes, hence its very 
tough nature. The sand is either crushed flint or gar- 
net. The crushed flint or garnet is sifted in several 
sizes, to suit the various degrees of fineness of sand- 
paper. Hardness and sharpness are the prime requi- 
sites. Obviously, sand, while hard enough, has no 
cutting edges. Garnet is a better abrasive than flint, 
but it is very much more costly, though more desirable 
where very hard surfaces are to be reduced. Evenness 
of the sand on the paper is also requisite, and this is 
done to an exact degree. This grit is sifted evenly 
down onto a roll of paper that has been glued by re- 
volving rolls just before the sand falls, and the whole 
process is done automatically by machinery. 

Sandpaper ranges from that which is soft like vel- 
vet — No. 000, on to No. 4, which resembles a section 
of turnpike — and not a smooth pike either. The 
smooth papers run from 000 to No. Y^. After those 
come Nos. i, ij^, 2, the most generally used; all after 
those numbers, 2j^, 3, 3J/2, and 4, are the coarse ones. 
Each has its purpose. 

To test sandpaper for quality rub two sanded sides 
together; if the sand comes off easily it is poor stock. 



276 THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

Good sandpaper is tough and elastic, the sand holds 
well, the sand is evenly sifted on, and it cuts clean 
and fast. 

How TO Use Sandpaper. — To prevent the paper 
from slipping under the hand chalk its back. When 
sanding around the edges of an object be careful not 
to cut through ; bear on with a firm but gentle pressure. 
To avoid dust wet the paper with benzine or turpentine. 
This will also cause the paper to cut faster. Keep the 
paper in a dry place. For certain difficult places split 
the paper. There is sandpaper sanded on both sides 
and made easy to split. 



VARNISH STAINS 

Stained varnishes are put out by manufacturers for 
household consumption, though considerable amounts 
are being used by painters for doing cheap grades of 
building work. Many of these stains are of excellent 
quality, but for the most part inferior varnishes are 
employed in their making, the idea being to produce a 
finish having a very high gloss and attractive coloring. 
Such finishes may be made by simply staining oil or 
spirit varnish with aniline dye. Where a brittle var- 
nish is used it may be improved by the addition of a 
little gum elemi or Venice turpentine. The latter is 
perhaps the best of the two. Gum elemi is apt to re- 
tard the drying of the varnish, even when used in 
small amount, while excess will cause stickiness. If 
used at all it will be safer to use a very little. 

There are stained liquid fillers, and these may be 
included with varnish stains; it is very quick-setting 
and brittle; it is also lacking in easy working quality, 
which is so essential to good surfacing, and spreading 
and blending. It is used mainly on soft woods, on cheap 
work. Being a copal varnish, presumably (it may and 
usually does contain some rosin), any oil ground pig- 
ment will mix with it. To retard too rapid setting or 
drying add a few drops of raw oil; this will also 
make it flow easier. 

Stained filler should be used thinner than that which 
contains no stain, so as to give a more uniform color- 
ing and covering and no laps. 

Walnut Varnish Stain. — Dry burnt turkey um- 
ber four and one-half pounds; raw linseed oil two 

277 



27Z THE EXPERT WOOD FINISHER 

quarts ; furniture varnish one quart ; driers one gallon. 
First mix the oil and umber, preferably by grinding, 
though it may be hand-mixed. Then add the furniture 
varnish and driers, and mix all together ; then strain it. 

Oak Varnish Stain. — Use raw Italian sienna in 
place of the umber, with above formula. 

Cherry Varnish Stain. — Use burnt Italian sienna 
and follow the first formula as to the rest. 

Ebony Varnish Stain. — Use ivory drop black, or 
Nigrosine B Black, and liquids as given in the first 
formula. 

Satinwood Varnish Stain. — Dissolve one pound 
of gum shellac, eight ounces of rosin, two ounces of 
gum benzoin, and two ounces of glue in one-half gallon 
of alcohol; add afterwards eight ounces of turmeric, 
or sufficient aniline yellow to give desired yellow color. 
Strain before using, and apply with a soft camel hair 
brush. 

Note. — All but the last of these formulas are fac- 
tory methods, slightly altered as to proportions, while 
the last, for satinwood, is an old one. 

As previously stated, a varnish stain is simply a 
varnish to which some coloring material has been 
added; hence to secure any particular colored varnish 
all that is required is to select any of the various pig- 
ments, vegetable, mineral or chemical, and add it to the 
varnish. The vogue obtained for the much used col- 
ored varnishes that are household words owe their 
success entirely to the magic of big advertising. 






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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




014 050 478 6 ^ 









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